Substance%20Use:

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• Chapter 14
• Substance Use
• Chemical Roulette in Sport
• By Mark H. Anshel

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Overview

• How much of a problem is substance abuse in
  sport? Why do athletes take these drugs?
• What types of ergogenic aids are used in sport
  and exercise?
• What are the effects and consequences of
  performance-enhancing drugs?
• Pros and cons of drug use in sport.
• Controlling drug use in sport.

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Use of Ergogenic Aids in Sport

• In the context of sport, an ergogenic aid can be
  broadly defined as a technique or substance used
  for the purpose of enhancing performance.
  Ergogenic aids have been classified in the
  following ways
• Nutritional (creatine)
• Pharmacological (steroids)
• Physiological (blood doping)
• Psychological (mental skills)
• Biomechanical (equipment, such as racing helmets)

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Doping

• The administering or use of substances in any
  form alien to the body or physiological
  substances taken in abnormal amounts and with
  abnormal methods by healthy persons with the
  exclusive aim of attaining an artificial and
  unfair increase of performance in competition.
• (Prokop, 1990)

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History of Doping

• Ancient Greeks ate plants to try to improve
  performance at the Olympic Games.
• 1886 Fatality of an English cyclist using the
  stimulant trimethyl.
• 1904 Olympic Games Some American cyclists used
  strychnine.
• 1952 Olympic Games Cyclists death caused by
  amphetamine overdose.

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Historical Efforts to Stop Doping

• 1950s IOC passed a resolution against doping.
• 1967 IOC established a medical commission to
  control drug use.
• 1976 Montreal Olympic Games dominated by East
  German womens swim team (they win all but 2
  events, their FIRST gold medals ever).
• (continued)

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Historical Efforts to Stop Doping (cont)

• 1983 The USOC Drug Control program was
  established (widespread perception that the USOC
  was helping athletes beat testing programs).
• 1988 Summer Olympic Games in Seoul Ben Johnson.

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Motives for Doping

• Competitiveness
• The perception that doping is necessary for
  success.
• Self-esteem
• If success is seen as essential for a positive
  self-concept, cheating becomes possible.
• Sport deviance
• Jay Coakleys (1991) concept of positive
  deviance.

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Positive Deviance

• Overcompliance to the norms and values embodied
  in the sport ethic
• Win at all costs
• No pain, no gain
• Sacrifice for the team
• Possible to view illegal behaviors (steroid use)
  as positive because they are for the good of the
  team (help us win)
• (Hughes Coakley, 1991)

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Classes of Banned Substances

• Anabolic-androgenic steroids
• Stimulants
• Narcotic analgesics
• Beta-adrenergic blockers
• Diuretics

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Terminology

• Drug misuse
• The taking of a substance for a purpose, but
  not in the appropriate amount, frequency,
  strength, or manner.
• Drug abuse
• The deliberate use of a substance for other
  than its intended purpose, in a manner that can
  damage health or the ability to function
  (Lombardo, 1993).

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Fundamental Problems With Doping

• Ethics Illegal use (e.g., steroids) gives
  athletes an unfair advantage
• Addictive potential
• Harmful side effects

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Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids

• Steroids
• Synthetic derivatives of the male hormone
  testosterone. Modified to stay in system.
• Anabolic effects
• Increasing muscle strength and size.
• Androgenic effect
• Masculinizing

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Steroid Use in Sport

• Injectable and ingestible steroids.
• Cycling the use of cycles of steroids to avoid
  tolerance. A cycle is a period of between 6 and
  14 weeks of steroid use, followed by a period of
  abstinence or reduction in use.
• Stacking the use of combinations of different
  steroids to enhance or potentiate the effects.
• (continued)

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Steroid Use in Sport (cont)

• Pyramiding With this method users slowly
  escalate steroid use (increasing the number of
  drugs used at one time or the dose and frequency
  of one or more steroids), reach a peak amount at
  midcycle, and gradually taper the dose toward the
  end of the cycle.
• Masking agents are taken to cover traces of
  steroids. Diuretics, probenocid, and
  epitestosterone may be used to mask anabolic
  steroid use.

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Effects of Anabolic Steroids

• Increased muscle size and strength
• Changes in body composition (cut) with anaerobic
  training
• Increased blood volume
• Increased number of red blood cells
• Decreased time for injury rehab

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Harmful Consequences

• Increased risk of heart disease
• Increased risk of cancer
• High blood pressure and stroke
• In men
• Shrinking testes
• Enlarged breasts
• Hair loss
• Possible sterility
• Roid rage

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Side Effects of Steroid Use in Females

• Shrinking breasts and uterus
• Enlarged clitoris
• Increased facial and body hair
• Deepening voice
• Irregular menstruation

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Other Performance-Enhancing Substances and Methods
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Creatine

• Food supplement synthesized from amino acids. In
  the form of phosphocreatine, it serves as an
  energy buffer during intense exercise.
• Beneficial for anaerobic, not aerobic, sports.
• (continued)

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Creatine (cont)

• Increases body mass. Increases water retention.
• Not banned by most sports.

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Human Growth Hormone (HGH)

• Hormone naturally secreted by the pituitary gland
  promotes physical development (particularly the
  growth of bone) during adolescence.
• It stimulates the synthesis of collagen, which is
  necessary for strengthening cartilage, bones,
  tendons, and ligaments, and also stimulates the
  liver to produce growth factors.
• In adults, HGH increases the number of red blood
  cells, boosts heart function, and makes more
  energy available by stimulating the breakdown of
  fat.

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Risks of HGH

• Too much HGH before or during puberty can lead to
  gigantism, which is excessive growth in height
  and other physical attributes.
• After puberty, inflated levels of HGH can cause
  acromegaly, a disease characterized by excessive
  growth of the head, feet, and hands. The lips,
  nose, tongue, jaw, and forehead increase in size
  and the fingers and toes widen and become
  spadelike. The organs and digestive system may
  also increase in size, which may eventually cause
  heart failure. Acromegaly sufferers often die
  before the age of 40. Excessive HGH in adults may
  also lead to diabetes.

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GHB

• Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB).
• Produced naturally in the body, but if ingested
  in abnormal amounts, it can lead to distorted
  physical characteristics and even death.
• Banned by the IOC.

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EPO

• Erythropoietin is manufactured naturally by the
  kidneys. EPO stimulates the production of red
  blood cells in bone marrow and regulates the
  concentration of red blood cells and hemoglobin
  in the blood. This is useful for athletes, since
  red blood cells shuttle oxygen to the cells,
  including muscle cells, enabling them to operate
  aerobically.
• By injecting EPO, athletes aim to increase their
  concentration of red blood cells and,
  consequently, their aerobic capacity.

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EPO and Cycling

• EPO hit the headlines in 1998 when the
  Festina-sponsored team in cyclings Tour de
  France was disqualified after being caught
  red-handed with large quantities of it and other
  banned substances.

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Stimulants

• Amphetamines
• Cocaine
• Caffeine
• Before 2003, over 18 ounces of coffee was
  prohibited.
• Caffeine and pseudophedrine were removed from the
  list of banned substances in 2003.
• Widespread use of Sudafed in NHL?
• http//sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/1998/wee
  kly/980202/nhlstory.html

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Depressants

• Barbiturates
• Beta-adrenergic blockers (for shooting sports)
• Used by many heart patients to reduce blood
  pressure
• Aids performance by slowing heart rate and
  decreasing anxiety
• Banned by IOC
• Side effects include hypotension, CNS
  disturbances, and impotence
• Alcohol
• Sedatives

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Pro-Drug Use

• Allow use because they are part of modern
  sport.
• Drugs are no more artificial than the entourage
  of aides and physical equipment commonplace in
  contemporary sport.
• Dr. Ellis Cashmore, Staffordshire University in
  England
• Argument that current antidrug policies are
  fraught with hypocrisy. Sport leagues stand to
  gain from bigger, stronger players and more
  exciting contests.

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Disconnected Values Model

• Based on the premise that people are more likely
  to change their behavior when they acknowledge
  the disconnect between their actions (negative
  habits) and their deepest values and beliefs.
• --Developed by Mark Anshel, based on the work of
  Jim Loehr, Tony Schwartz, and Jack Groppel.
• (continued)

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Disconnected Values Model (cont)
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