Hinduism 1

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An Introduction to Hindu Religion and Culture
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Important Hindu Religious Symbols
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Om or Aum

• Made of three Sanskrit letters Aa,
  Au, and Ma
• When combined, they make the sound of AUM or
  Omthe most important symbol in Hinduism.
• This symbol actually represents Brahman or the
  absolute.

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Swastika

• Second in importance only to the OM
• It is not a letter or syllable but a pictorial
  picture character in the shape of a cross which,
  when branches are bent at right angles and facing
  in a clockwise direction,represents the
  eternal nature of the Brahman.

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Purnakumbha (Earthen Pot)

• Full of water and with fresh mango leaves and a
  coconut atop itgenerally placed as the chief
  deity or by the side of the deity
• The pot symbolizes mother earththe water-giver
  of lifethe leaves life, and the coconut divine
  consciousness.

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The Lotus

• The holiest of flowers for the Hindu
• The lotus is representative of the true soul of
  an individualalso a symbol of creation.

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I. Generalizations of Indian Religion
A. It is complex and indefinableno creeds 1.
Indian religion is given to a functional
definition of religion and emphasizes
evolutionary change 2. Hinduism can be
considered more of a league of religions,
than a single religion 3. It seems not to
want any boundary around it.
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• B. It is a highly inclusive religious system.
• 1. May believe anything or nothing
• 2. Room for all types of souls
• C. It is a system of rationalism and esoteric
  wisdom.
• 1. One must go to the wisdom of the ages, a
  metaphysical view of history.
• 2. Ultimately all is question of knowledge.
• 3. Sin is delusion, maya is sin or delusion.

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• D. By Tradition it is ethnic-centered
• 1. To be Indian is to be Hindu
• 2. It is a nationalistic religion

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• E. Spirit of Indian Philosophy
• 1. Chief mark is its concentration upon the
  spiritual.
• 2. Intimate relationship of philosophy and
  life, practical applications of philosophy to
  life Truth must be lived.
• 3. Has introspective attitude and introspective
  approach to reality.
• 4. Most philosophies idealistic
• 5. Requires extensive use of reason, but
  intuition is accepted as the only method through
  which ultimate truth can be known
• 6. Stresses Sruti, or acceptance of authority

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II. Strands of Indian Religion

• Understanding the development of literature helps
  to understand the historical development.
• Each piece of writing over-shadows another piece.
• Each culture is produced by its religious
  literature.
• The oldest document represents mixture of thought
  of the invading Aryans.

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• B. Word darsana, usually translated
  philosophy, in Sanskrit means seeing or
  experiencingall systems follow in two main
  divisions
• 1. astikathe orthodox
• 2. nastikaBuddhism and Jainism, which reject
  the authority of the Vedas

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• C. Divisions of Hindu thought through its
  literature
• 1. Vedic period2500-600 BCE
• 2. Epic period600 BCE-200 CE, also the
  beginning of the rival schools development of
  bhakti, Gita, beginning of 6 darsanas
• 3. Sutra period200 CEsystematic treatises
  of the various schools were written
• 4. Scholastic period--?-1700 CE, commentators
  on the Sutras

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a Rishi
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• D. Historical Development of Indian Thought
• 1. Brahmanism-Vedic period2500-500 BCE
• a. Pre-Aryan2500-1500 BCE
• (1) Earliest religious thought is deduced
  from archaeological evidence through
  seals, figurines and other such artifacts.

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(2) Pre-Aryan or Dravidian culture is known
through ruins of two cities, Harappa and
Mohenjodaro, which seemed preoccupied with
fertility symbols (figurines of pregnant
females, stone phallic symbols) which seem to
suggest worship of the Mother Goddess and
the worship of a divinity similar to Shiva
usually associated with a bull often
represented as a phallic symbol. Some seals
point to religious motifs found in Mesopotamia,
such as the Gilgamesh legend.
b. Aryanism1500-500 BCE
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Harrappan Artifacts
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Priest-King
Male Head
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Mohenjodaro Great Bath
Mohenjodaro Street
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• The Indo-Aryans (Europeans)

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• I. Early History
• A. Around 2000 BCE a series of migrations began
  from the area north of the Black Sea
• B. The settlers eventually covering most of
  Europe, the Northern part of the Near East and
  the Indian sub continent
• C. The study of this migration beginning with a
  study of the Indo-Aryan languagesfrom the
  ancient Sanskrit to languages of modern Europe

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• D. Early Indo-European mythology
• 1. According to some scholars these early
  people would reject the more popular sky-god in
  favor of a tripartite division of divine
  powerwhich would in turn reflect the social
  structures of the people
• a. A magical-legal function
• b. A warrior function
• c. The various functions surrounding
  fecundity

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• 2. This tripartite division would lead to
  an emphasis of three main deities
• a. There seems to be a tendency to divide
  the function between two deities
• (1) One deity would be threatening and
  indifferent to the fate of humanity
• (2) One deity would be concerned with
  the proper ordering of human life and
  society

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• b. The warrior deity is one of ambiguity
• (1) As a warrior he must be great in battle
  in order to protect society and the cosmos
• (2) But as a result of his victory his rage
  may be turned on creation itself and must be
  placated by sacrifice and ritual
• 3. The theme is found in the mythologies
  of the Indo-Aryans with some variations

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Vedic Gods andGoddesses
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• Earliest evidence for Indo-Aryan mythology comes
  from the Rig-Veda, written at the end of the 2nd
  century BCE by the Aryans who invaded northern
  India

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Indra

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• I. He is lord of the heavens the most popular
  and powerful of the Vedic deities
• II. He rides a white elephant called Airavata
  and has the power to control lightening

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• IV. He had many battles with demons the most
  famous was the slaying of Vrtasura
• A. He killed the demon of the dark skies
  (clouds) with his weapon (lightening)
• B. He released the cows (waters) that were
  held in captivity by the demon

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• V. Prone to drinking soma which caused him to
  lose control of himself
• VI. He is more like a king of the earth than
  the heavens
• VII. In the Kena Upanishad we read that he was
  the only god to have gone nearest to Brahman and
  was to know Him as Brahmanthis gave him the
  right to become the rulers of heavens

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• VIII. He is usually shown with four arms and
  riding on a white elephant
• IX. He is sometimes shown with his wife,
  Sachidevi
• X. With the emergence of devotional Saivism and
  Bhagavatism his importance declined

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• XI. Some scholars believe that he prefigures
  Krishna

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Varuna

• I. There are signs that he is an omniscient,
  omnipresent, omnipotent, and compassionate God
• II. He is also a precursor of Brahman
• III. He is the ruler of the world order (rita)

Rama Varuna
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• IV. He is the supreme God who controls justice
• V. He has innumerable spies (rays of
  light)thus he knows what goes on all over the
  world
• VI. He lost much of his importance as Indra
  became more prominenthe was relegated to the
  position of a dikpala or ruler of a quarter
  (western hemisphere) and lord of the oceans and
  waters

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• VII. He is usually depicted as the rider of a
  chariot drawn by seven swans and has four hands
  and an umbrella over his headsuggesting his
  lordship over aquatic life

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Agni

• I. The chosen Priest, God, minister of
  sacrifice, the hortar, who lavishes wealth and
  dispels the darkness
• II. He is appointed by Manu as the priest
• III. Often invoked along with Indra, with whom
  he shares the passion for soma drink

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• IV. Agni was the earliest Angiras, a Seer
• V. Aryans were aware of his destructive
  ability, as he sets the forests aflame
• VI. In images, he is depicted with two heads,
  long flowing hair, a pot belly, six eyes, seven
  hands, four horns, and three legs.

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• VII. His seven hands represent the seven flames
  and the three legs represent the three worlds
  which he reigns the pot belly denotes his love
  for rich oily food
• VIII. His vehicle is the Ram

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• IX. As the fire god, Agni he consumes the
  sacrifice and, as priest, presents it to the gods
  above
• X. He is also the element that binds together
  the three worlds, in heaven he is born over again
  as the sun, in the atmosphere he is kindled by
  the waters, on earth he is kindled by the hands
  of humanity

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Rudra and Rudras

• I. Rudra is a militant god of storms and
  lightening and a provider of medicines
• II. He is a fierce looking god, well built and
  golden in color, with braided hair of firm
  limbs, multiform, strong, tawny who adorns
  himself with bright gold decorations

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• III. He wields the thunder bolt, bow and arrow,
  and sends down streaks of lightening shaking the
  worlds, making people nervous with fear
• IV. Sometimes the hymns refer to not just one
  Rudra but a group of Rudras eleven in numbersome
  suggest this is a symbolic reference to the ten
  vital breaths

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Mitra

• I. A god of the heavens, like Varuna
• II. Together they uphold the law, causes the
  cows to stream, the plants to flourish, and send
  down the rain-flood
• III. Both are adityas and often invoked together

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• IV. Mitra stirs men to action and sustains both
  earth and heaven
• V. Mitra and Varuna are guardians of the world,
  who sit in a gold hued chariot from day break and
  behold the infinity

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Vishnu

• I. In the Rig Veda, he is a minor god, one of
  the adityas
• II. Like the Vishnu of later days, he is a lover
  and protector of devotees in whose loved mansion
  all god loving creatures live happily.

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• III. He is a god of three strides who upholds
  the threefold existence, the earth, the heaven,
  and all living creatures

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Usha

• I. Usha is dawn, the daughter of the sky, lady
  of the light, who rouses all life
• II. She is borned on a hundred chariots, she
  yokes her steed before the arrival of the sun and
  is never late

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• III. She brings not only light, but hope,
  happiness, riches, and all the good things
• IV. She is a goddess of light and beauty, whom
  the Rishis of old time invoked for their
  protection and help

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Soma

• I. Soma is the god of inspiration, the
  intoxicant who stirs the minds, lures the gods
  and brings them to the place of worship
• II. One of the most popular of the Rigvedic
  hymns, the entire 9th Mandala is dedicated to him

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• III. Also known as the Lord of the speech
  (Vachspati), because of his intoxicating
  influence on the movement of speech

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Asvins

• I. Twin deities who origins is shrouded in myth
• II. They have healing and curative powers
• III. They are said to descent to earth three
  times a day to help humankind with their
  restorative and curative powers

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Maruts

• I. They are powerful and destructive storm
  gods, who lash the world from end to end, make
  the mountains rock, rend the forest-kings apart,
  make the earth tremble and drench the earth with
  heavy rains
• II. Considered to be the progeny of Rudra

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Rta

• I. He is the rhythmic pattern of the
  universethe orderly way in which the world
  regulates itself
• II. He determines the usual paths by which the
  heavenly objects, the sun, the moon, the stars,
  the nine planets, conduct themselv

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Yama

• I. Yama is the god of justice and ruler of the
  dead and departed who go the region of hell
• II. Two fierce dogs with four eyes and wide
  nostrils, look on men and guard the pathway the
  leads the world of Yama

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• III. He is the master of knowledge and taught
  young Nachiketa the secrets of Brahman, fire
  sacrifice, and immortality
• IV. His image is shown as riding a he-buffalo,
  carrying a mace as his weapon and holding a
  noose, using the noose to drag the deceased
  beings to the hells

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Adityas

• Varuna, Vishnu, and Mitre plus a number of
  minor deities are referred to as
  Adityaschildren of the boundless goddess Aditi
  (ancient mother-earth?)

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Danavas

• The Danavas were the children of Danu
  (restrainer) and were foes of the Adityas
• a. The most important one being the great
  dragon Vritra
• b. He would eventually be destroyed by Inda
  with his thunderboltthereby freeing the
  cosmic waters and making possible the creation

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• The mythologies will be in a constant flux over
  the centuries and some minor deities in the
  Rig-Veda will become important in later writings
• 1 Prajapati would come to replace Varuna as
  arbiter of the cosmic order
• a. By heating himself, Prajapati would
  bring into being the hierarchy of the universe
  through his sweat or semen
• b. He would establish himself as the
  self-sacrifice that would be perpetuated
  through the priestly class

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Summary
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• I. The Vedas show a ritualistic cult involving
  the sacrificial use of fire and an exhilarating
  drink called soma, as well as the rudiments of a
  social order
• II. These gods are found to be somewhat
  parallel to other Indo- Aryan cultures, such as
  Iran and Greece
• 3. The religion developed by the Aryans are
  found in the Vedas

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• III. Vedas are referred to as the
  Srutithat which heard or that of divine
  origin
• A. Represents established knowledge, its
  final authority is accepted by all Hindus
  as eternal and revealed scripture
• B. The earliest portion of the Vedas
  consists of four metrical hymns, known as
  the Samhitas

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1. Rig-Veda

• 1028 (arranged in 10 mandalas or circles)
• hymns to the gods, shows optimism and enjoyment
  of the world, stresses humility to the gods
• Written between 1500-900 BCE
• Dominated by hymns praising the Aryan gods for
  giving them victorious and wealth plundered from
  the local Dasas through warfare
• Hymns refer to the use of horses and chariots
  with spikes, spears, bows, arrows, and iron
  weapons

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• Rig-Veda II206-8 refers to victory over the
  Dasa peoples
• He, self-reliant, mighty and triumphant,,
• brought low the dear head of the wicked
  Dasas.
• Inda, the Vritra-slayer, fort-destroyer,
• scattered the Dasa hosts who dwelt in darkness.
• For men hath he created earth and waters,
• and ever helped the prayer of him who worships.
• To him in might the Gods have ever yielded,
• to Indra in the tumult of battle.
• When in his arms they laid the bolt,,
• he slaughtered the Dasyus
• and cast down their forts of iron

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Rig-Veda I11-5
I laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of
sacrifice Worthy is Agni
to be praised by living as by ancient seers
Through Agni man
obtaineth wealth, yes, plenty waxing day by day
Agni, the perfect
sacrifice, which though encompassest about
May Agni, sapient-minded
Priest, truthful, most gloriously great
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• The first indication of the cast system is
  contained in a hymn to Purushathe embodied human
  spirit, who is ¼ creature and ¾ eternal life in
  heaven
• Rig-Veda 1090

A thousand heads hath Purusa, a thousand eyes, a
thousand feet On every side pervading
earth he fills a space ten fingers wide
This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all
that is to be . . . . . . . . . . . When they
divided Purusa how many portions did they make?
What do they call his mouth, his
arms? What do they call his thighs and feet?

The Brahman was
his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made.
His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the
Sudra was produced
The
Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye
the Sun had birth Indra and Agni from his mouth
were born, and Vayu from his breath
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Rig-Veda 212
1. The god who had insight the moment he was
born, the first who protected the gods with his
power of thought, before whose breath the two
world-halves tremble as the greatness of his
manly powers.he, my people, is Inda
2. He who made fast
the tottering earth, who made still the quaking
mountains,who measured out and extended the
expanse of the air, who propped up the skyhe, my
people, is Indra
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Rig-Veda 585

1. For the emperor I will sing a splendid, deep
   prayer, one that will be dear to the famous
   Varuna who struck apart the earth and spread it
   beneath the sun as the priest who performs the
   slaughter spreads out the victims skin
2. He stretched out the middle realm of space in the
   trees he laid victory in swift horses and milk
   in the dawn cows, intelligence in hearts and fire
   in the waters. Varuna placed the sun in the sky
   and Soma on the mountain

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• Creation Hymns

RV 10129There was neither non-existence nor
existence then there was neither in the realm
of space nor the sky which is beyond. What
stirred? Where? In whose protection? Was
there water, bottomlessly deep?

There was neither dead nor immortality
then. There was no distinguishing sign of night
or day. That one breathed, windless, by its own
impulse. Other than that there was nothing
beyond RV 10121 In the beginning the Golden
Embryo arose. Once he was born, he was the one
lord of creation. He held in place the earth and
the sky. Who is the god whom we should worship
with the oblation?

He who gives life, who gives strength, whose
command all the gods, his own, obey his shadow
is immortalityand death. Who is the god who we
should worship with the oblation?
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• The relationship between the various deities
  of Rig-Veda are not clear
• (a) Each may be represented as the
  supreme god
• (b) Indra stands out as the pre- eminent
  god of Rig-Veda, which recounts his deeds
• (c) In terms of this tradition, creation
  proceeded when Indra, the champion of the
  celestial gods, slew a demon, Vrita, who
  enclosed the waters and the sun requisite for
  human life

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• (d) When Indra split open the belly of this
  demon the essentials of creationmoisture, heat,
  lightwere released and cosmic orderritawas
  established under administration of the god Varuna

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• 7. Gods and men had specific functions
  (vrata) to perform in accordance with this
  cosmic order
• 8. After death individuals who had
  fulfilled their obligations under cosmic
  order went to a heavenly realm presided over
  by Yama, the first mortal
• 9. Two mythological dogs guarded the
  righteous on the path to the region, but the
  sinful were fettered out, and unprotected,
  fell prey to various demons

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• 10. Cultic practices developed an
  elaborate ritual based on a fire sacrifice,
  personified as the god Agni, the crackling
  of the sacrificial fire was viewed as the
  voice of Agni
• 11. The soma juice, personified by the god
  Soma, was used
• 12. Importance was given to the chanting
  of hymns and invocations by the human
  priesthood

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• 13. Later the sacrifice was viewed
  cosmologically and the correct performance
  of the sacrifice possessed a magical potency
  which could coerce even the gods
• (a) This magical power in the prayers
  developed into spells called brahman
• (b) He who recited them was
• prayer-er or brahman, or one related to
  prayer (brahmana)
• (c) This principle would be used in the
  Upanishads as the ultimate principle

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• 2. Yajur Veda
• (10th century BCE)
• Sacred liturgy written in prose, sacrificial
  formulas. Caste system was in place and role of
  priests and their ceremonies gained influence and
  justified the Aryan ways to native workers
• Yajur Veda has 2 collections called White and
  Blackthe latter being more obscure in its
  meaning
• By instituting more elaborate sacrifices for
  their wealthy patrons, the priests could grow
  both in numbers and wealth.
• The horse sacrifice was one of the most
  famousnot done very oftenthe parts of the horse
  symbolized different aspects of the universe

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• The soma sacrifice was the most important and
  could last up to 12 years.
• The priests placed themselves at the top of the
  caste system. After the Atharva Veda was
  accepted, each sacrifice required at least 4
  priests, one on each side of the fire using the
  Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, plus their
  assistants.

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• Yajur Veda 1.2.7
• a. I buy Soma from thee, strong, rich in sap,
  full of force, overcoming the foe, the pure with
  the pure I buy, the bright with the bright, the
  immortal with the immortal, to match they cow.
• b. With be the gold
• c. Thou art the bodily form of penance,
  Prajatis kind, I buy (Soma) with the last
  offspring of thee that bast a thousandfold
  prosperity.
• d. With us be union with thee with me let thy
  weal wealth abide
• e. With us be light, darkness be on the
  Soma-seller
• f. Come as a friend to us, creating firm
  friendships.
• g. Enter the right thigh of Indra, glad the
  glad, tender the tender.
• h. O Svana, Bhraja, Anghari, Bambhari, Hasta,
  Suhasta, and Krcanu, here are your wages for
  Soma guard them, let them not fail you.

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• 3. Sama Vedas
• Collections of chants sung by priests at
  sacrifice. These are considered to be the origin
  of Indian music The Sama Vedas helped to train
  the musicians and functioned as a hymnal for the
  religious rites
• The animal sacrifices did not use the Sama chants.

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• Sama Veda, Book III, Chapter 1, Decade 1
• 1. Let Soma juices make thee glad! Display thy
  bounty, Thunderer Drive off the enemies of
  prayer!
• 2. Drink our libation, Lord of hymns! With
  streams of meath thou art bedweded Ye, Indra,
  glory is thy gift.
• 3. Indra hath ever thought of you and tended
  you with care. The God, Heroic Indra, is not
  checked.
• 4. Let the drops pass within thee as the rivers
  flow into the sea O Indra, naught excelleth thee!
• 5. Indra, the singers with high praise, Indra
  reciters with their lauds, Indra the choirs have
  glorified
• 6. May Indra give, to aid us wealth handy that
  rules the skilful ones! Yea, may the Strong give
  potent wealth.
• 7. Verily, Indra, conquering all, drives even
  mighty fear away, For firm is he and swift to
  act.
• 8. These songs with every draught we pour come,
  lover of the song, to thee As milch-kine hasten
  to their calves.
• 9. Indra and Wishan will we call for friendship
  and prosperity, And for the wining of the spoil.
• 10. O Indra, Vrita-slayer, naught is better,
  mighter than thou Verily there is none like thee!

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• 4. Atharva Veda
• Magical formulas, spells, incantations, the most
  recent of the works
• The bheshajani spells are for healing and cures
  using herbs to treat fever, leprosy, jaundice,
  and other diseases.
• The abhichara spells were negative or bewitching
  spells and were used to cause diseases or harm to
  enemies
• Marriage ceremonies would be included (Atharva
  Veda 142-71
• I am he, you are she.
• I am song you are verse.
• I am heaven you are earth
• Let us two dwell together here
• let us generate children

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• Artha Veda 1.23
• Leprosy cured by a dark plant
• 1. Born by night art thou, O plant, dark,
  black, sable. Do thou, that art rich in colour,
  stain this leprosy, and the gray spots!
• 2. The leprosy and the gray spots drive away
  from heremay thy native colour settle upon
  theethe white spots cause to fly away!
• 3. Sable is thy hiding place, sable thy
  dwelling-place, sable art thou, O plant drive
  away from here the speckled spots.
• 4. The leprosy which has originated in the
  bones, and that which has originated in the body
  and upon the skin, the white mark begotten of
  corruption, I have destroyed with my charm.

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Vedic Sacrifices
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Characteristics of Vedic Ritual

• I. There was no fixed place of worshipno
  temples or permanent structures were devoted to
  Vedic ritual
• II. There is no evidence for icons or images
  representing gods or their attributes

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• III. Central focus of Vedic ritual is fire
• IV. Principle and central act of almost all
  rituals is the offering of edible or drinkable
  substances into the fire
• V. The rituals range from the simplest
  (Agnihorta or Fire offering to the twice daily
  offerings of milk and other products into the fire

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Participants of the Ritual

• I. The Ahitagni who actually causes the ritual
  to be performedknown as the yajamana or
  sacrificer
• II. He relies on a collection of priests who
  fall into four main groups

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• A. The priests of the Rig Veda, the Sama
  Veda, and the Yajur Veda are responsible for the
  three types of sacral utterance that together
  form the verbal sector of Vedic ritual
• B. The chief priest represent the Rig Vedas
  is called the Hortar, in the Sama the Udgatar,
  that of the Yajur is the Adhvaryu

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• C. The representatives of the Atharva Veda is
  the Brahman who oversees the whole operation
• III. A third set of presentatives is invisible
  (except for Soma and Agni) and are a selection of
  the gods

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Types of Sacrifices

• I. Haviryajnasdetermined by the rhythm of the
  year and movements of the sun and moon
• II. Agnihortatwice daily offering of the fire
• III. DarsapaurNamasathe new and full moon
  sacrifice involves offering every two weeks

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• IV. CaturmasyaniFour monthly or seasonal
  sacrifices
• V. AgrayaNafirst fruits offered at harvest
• VI. Pasubandhaanimal sacrifice
• VII. Asvamedhahorse sacrifice where a horse
  is slaughtered

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• (4) Commentaries on the Vedas include

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• (a) Brahmamanas
• (Between 900 700 BCE)

Written in prose as sacerdotal commentaries on
the four Vedas to guide the practices of the
sacrifices and give explanations for the often
mythical and fanciful customs

They serve as a transition from the Vedas to the
Aranyakas and the more mystical Upanishads
They also contain
stories meant to explain or rationalize their
religious practices
The power of the WORD is
increasing as the sacrifices were glorified and
given power over the Vedic gods
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• Japa, or the practice of chanting a mantram like
  Aum (OM) practiced ascetically with the
  sacrifices were believed to produce all ones
  desires
• Prajapti becomes more powerful and is said to
  have given birth to the gods and the demonshe
  would be the first to sacrifice and was also
  considered to be the sacrifice itself
• He practiced tapas to create by the heat of his
  own efforts
• Prajapati would later be replaced by Brahman
• A belief in repeated lives through reincarnation
  is indicated in several passages
  

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• (b) Aranyakas
• (600 BCE)
• Forest texts, sages of the forest, collections of
  hidden truths elucidated
• They were tacked on to the end of the Brahmanas
  only 3 are extant and share the names of the
  Brahmanas they follow
• Texts were transitions between the Brahmanas and
  the Upanishadsthey discuss rites and magic
  contents but also early speculations which would
  later flower in the Upanishads
• Emphasis is placed on knowledge human
  immortality identified with the soul (atman)

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• (c) Upanishads
• Which were reactions against sacrificial system,
  very philosophical, stresses ultimate cosmic
  principle as Brahman
• The term literally means those who sit
  nearimplies a seeker listening closely to the
  secret doctrines of a spiritual teacher.
• There are over 200, but only 15 are mentioned by
  the philosopher Shankara (788-820) CE. They are
  considered Vedicthe rest were written later and
  are related to the Puranic worship of Shiva,
  Shakti, and Vishnu

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• The oldest and longest are the Brihad-Aranyaka
  and the Chandogya (7th century BCE)
• The Brihad-Aranyaka has 3 Aranyaka chapters
  followed by six Upanishad chapters

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The Principle Upanishads

• The best known in English
• Kena and Chandogya, attached to the Sama Vedas
• Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandakya, attached to
  the Atharva Veda
• Brihad-Aranyaka, attached to the Rig-Veda
• Taittiriya, attached to the Black Yajur-Veda
• Isha, attached to the 40th chapter of the
  Vajasaeyi-Samhita

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Doctrines of the Upanishads

• 1. The primary message is that through
  meditation one can become aware that ones soul
  (atman) is one with all things
• 2. The soul is identified with the real, the
  immortal, and the life-breath (prana), which is
  veiled by name and form (individuality)
• 3. The principle of action (karma) is explained
  as one becomes good by good action, bad by bad
  action (Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad 32-13)

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• 5. The soul is identified as being
  intelligent, dear, true, endless, blissful and
  stable. In the Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad
  (39-26) the soul is said to be
• . . .not this, not that
• It is incomprehensible, for it is not
  comprehended.
• It is indestructible, for it is never destroyed.
• It is unattached, for it does not attach itself.
• It is unfettered it does not suffer it is not
  injured.

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• 6. By stressing the meaning behind the ritual,
  the Upanishads would stress that there would be
  various levels of comprehension suited to
  different individual intellectual capacities and
  by identifying partially or by degrees two
  similar or dissimilar elements which will on
  further analysis or introspection reveal a
  unity

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• 7. This latter aspect helps to suggest that the
  dualism in the world is to some extent unreal
• 1 The macrocosm is viewed universally as
  the brahman
• 2 The microcosmic nature of the human
  soul is the atman
• 3 Brahman is the only real and unchanging
  reality
• 4 Brahman cannot really be defined
• 5 The atman exists in the midst of the
  changes of the universe
• 6 The atman exists in all things, animate
  and inanimate
• 7 Beings differ in the degree to which
  Atman has come to be realized

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• 8. There is an evolution of a gradual
  uncovering or bringing to light of realization
  of atman. The atman is shown as being enclosed
  in a series of sheaths
• a annamayathe self, the physical body
• b pranamayathe vital principle, breath,
  which holds and vitalizes together the body
  and the mind. Life continues in this sheath
• c manomayamanas, impressions through
  the senses
• d uynanamayaintellect
• e anandamayabliss, ego

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• 9. Upanishads identifies 3 stages of
  consciousness
• 1 The Waking Stateawareness of things
  external to the body
• 2 The Dreaming Stateawareness of internal
  phenomena and enjoying mental impressions,
  mind active though independently of the sense
  organs, pure mental beings
• 3 The Deep Sleep State, entirely unaware
  of external and internal world
• 4 Pure Consciousnessa fourth stage which
  transcends all states. Here the atman is fully
  realized it is the supreme mystical experience

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• 10. Liberation is achieved through 2 spiritual
  disciplines
• 1 observation of moral of moral laws
• a moral laws are accomplished through
  self-discipline
• b ultimate moral ideal of Upanishads is
  complete self-abnegation
• 2 practice of meditation accomplished by
  hearing and reflection

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• 11. The relationship of Atman and Brahman can
  be found in the phrase Tat Tvam Asi thou art
  thatstressing a relationship and complete
  identify between Brahman and Atman
• 12. There are 108 Upanishads with 10 them
  considered to be the most important
• 1The words must be seen as spontaneous
  records of mystic experiences of the rishis,
  not a calculated logic or rational thinking
• 2 The primary state to this mystic
  experience is the negation or denial of all
  external things

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Methodology

• A. Dialogue with questions and answers
• B. Narration and episodes
• C. Similes, metaphors, and illustrations
• D. Symbolism

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Brahma Sutra indicates three main guidelines to
understand purpose of Upanishads

• A. Tattu samanvayaah.htotal material available
  on the point of study in the entire Shruti
  literature has to be taken into account and
  interpreted correctly by applying canons of
  interpretation

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• B. Gati samaanyaah.hAll Shruti literature have
  the same purport and apparent contradictions are
  resolved by proper study and interpretation
• C. Sarvavedoantapratyayam.hunderlying purport
  of Upanishads is found to be one of consistent
  truth, which when fully understood fully will
  lead to God-realization

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Chandogya Upanishad

• 1. It belongs to the Sama Veda and is the last
  8 chapters of the 10-chapter Chandogya Brahmana
• 2. Religious life is described as having 3
  parts
• a. Sacrifice, study of the Vedas, and giving
  alms
• b. Austerity
• c. Studying the sacred knowledge while living
  in the house of a teacher
• 3. Reincarnation is clearly emphasized and
  declares that those who conduct is pleasant here
  will enter a pleasant womb of a Brahmin,
  Kshatriya, or Vaisya those of stinking conduct
  will enter the stinking womb of a dog, swine, or
  outcast

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Taittiriya Upanishad

• 1. The word AUM is emphasizedprayers often end
  with AUM
• 2. Peace of the soul is emphasizedprayers
  often end with the chanting of peace (shanti)
  three times
• 3. Highest goal is to know Brahman

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Aitareya Upanishad

• 1. Begins with the one Spirit creating the
  universe out of its being. Out of the cosmic egg
  came speech, breath, eyes and sight, ears and
  hearing, skin, hair, and herbs from the navel
  and outbreath came death and from the organ of
  pleasure seed and waters were born
• 2. Ascending from this world with the
  intelligent soul, one obtains all desires in a
  heavenly world, eventually immortality

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Katha Upanishad

• Belongs to Taittiriiya Shaakhas of the Krishna
  Yajur Veda

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• 1. Utilizes an ancient story from the RV about a
  father who gives his son Nachiketas to death
  (Yama) it brings in some of the highest
  teachings of mystical spirituality
• 2. The chariot is used as a symbol for a person
• a. The soul is the lord of the chariot, which
  is the body
• b. Buddhi (intuition) is the chariot-driver
• c. The mind is the reins
• d. The senses are the horses
• e. The paths are the objects of the senses

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• 3. Three boons asked by Nachiketas
• a. Let my father be freed from anger towards
  me, let his calm by restored and let him
  recognize me when I return
• b. Teach me the nature of the Supreme God
  Hari, also bearing the name of Agni, who can
  bestow the immortal world to t hose who worship
  Him by performing the Nachiketas sacrifice

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• c. Teach me the nature of the Supreme God,
  who controls the souls after and liberation

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• Thus, the whole of Vedic literature consists of
  four Vedas or Samhitas, several expository ritual
  texts attached to each of these Vedas, and
  speculative works, or Upanishads