Week 12 The Universal Representation: The Computer and Digitalization

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Week 12 The Universal Representation The
Computer and Digitalization

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Sources www.iu.edu/emusic/361/iuonly/slides/dig
italaudio.ppt www.cs.virginia.edu/evans/cs150/cl
asses/class24/lecture24.ppt www.computinghistorym
useum.org/teaching/.../pptlectures/History.ppt ww
w.educationworld.com/a_lesson/TM/computer20histor
y1.ppt
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First Computing MachineAbacus

• 3000 BCE, early form of beads on wires, used in
  China,
• From semitic abaq, meaning dust.
• Still in use today

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Mechanical Reasoning Logic

• Aristotle (350BC) Organon
• Codify logical deduction with rules of inference
  (syllogisms)
• Every A is a P
• X is an A
• X is a P

Every human is mortal. Gödel is human. Gödel is
mortal.
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Greek Logic

• Euclid (300BC) Elements
• We can reduce Geometry to a few axioms and derive
  the rest by following rules of
• Propositional Logic
• Constants False, True (Binary Logic Two
  values)
• Symbols 0,1
• Variables p, q, r,
• Punctuation ( )
• Connectives
• (not p),
• ( p and q),
• ( p or q),
• ( p implies q, p only if q, if p then q,
  conditional),
• (p if and only if q)
• Well-formed formula (wff)

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Algorithm (825AD)

• Mathematical Recipe for solving a class of
  problems.
• Al-Khwarizmi, muslim Persian astronomer and
  mathematician, wrote a treatise in the arabic
  language in 825 AD, On Calculation with
  HinduArabic numeral system.

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BLAISE PASCAL (1623 - 1662)

• In 1642, the French mathematician and
  philosopher Blaise Pascal invented a calculating
  device that would come to be called the "Adding
  Machine".

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BLAISE PASCAL (1623 - 1662)

• Originally called a "numerical wheel
  calculator" or the "Pascaline", Pascal's
  invention utilized a train of 8 moveable dials or
  cogs to add sums of up to 8 figures long. As one
  dial turned 10 notches - or a complete revolution
  - it mechanically turned the next dial.
• Pascal's mechanical Adding Machine automated the
  process of calculation. Although slow by modern
  standards, this machine did provide a fair degree
  of accuracy and speed.

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Gottfried Wilhelm von LEIBNIZ(1646-1716)

• Computing Machine (1679)
• Binary Numbers (1701)

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Binary Numbers 1. Computers use Binary
Numbers.2. What is a Character? 3. What are
the Characters in the English Alphabet? A, B, C,
., Z (there are 26 of these)4. We combine
these Characters to make Words CAT, HAT, 5.
What are the Characters in the Decimal Number
System? 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (there
are how many? 10!)6. We combine these to make
Decimal Numbers 12, 34, (we add columns of
10, 100, as needed)7. In the Binary Number
System, there are only two characters 0, 1 (so
we add columns of 2, 4, 8, 16, as needed)8.
Now, Lets learn how to Match a Decimal Number to
a Binary Number

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Binary Numbers Decimal Binary10s 1s 16s
8s 4s 2s 1s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 1
0 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 6
0 0 1 1 0 0 7 0 0 1 1 1 0 8 0 1 0 0 0
0 9 0 1 0 0 1

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Jacquard Loom (1801)Mechanical Computer

• first stored program - metal cards
• first computer manufacturing
• still in use today!

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Charles Babbage
Analytical Engine

• Difference Engine c.1822
• huge calculator, never finished
• Analytical Engine 1833
• could store numbers
• calculating mill used punched metal cards for
  instructions
• powered by steam!
• accurate to six decimal places

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Importance of the Difference Engine

• 1. First attempt to devise a computing machine
  that was automatic in action and well adapted, by
  its printing mechanism, to a mathematical task of
  considerable importance.

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Ada Augusta Byron, 1815-1852

• born on 10 December 1815.
• named after Byron's half sister, Augusta, who had
  been his mistress.

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Ada Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace1842

• Translated Menebreas paper into English
• Taylors The editorial notes are by the
  translator, the Countess of Lovelace.
• Footnotes enhance the text and provide examples
  of how the Analytical Engine could be used, i.e.,
  how it would be programmed to solve problems!
• First Algorithm
• worlds first programmer

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Logic

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Mathematics and Mechanical Reasoning

• Newton (1687) Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
  Mathematica
• We can reduce the motion of objects (including
  planets) to following axioms (laws) mechanically

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Mechanical Reasoning

• Late 1800s many mathematicians working on
  codifying laws of reasoning
• George Boole, Laws of Thought
• Augustus De Morgan
• Whitehead and Russell, 1911-1913
• Principia Mathematica
• Attempted to formalize all mathematical knowledge
  about numbers and sets

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All true statements about numbers
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Perfect Axiomatic System
Derives all true statements, and no false
statements starting from a finite number of
axioms and following mechanical inference rules.
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Incomplete Axiomatic System
incomplete
Derives some, but not all true statements, and
no false statements starting from a finite
number of axioms and following mechanical
inference rules.
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Inconsistent Axiomatic System
Derives all true statements, and some false
statements starting from a finite number of
axioms and following mechanical inference rules.
some false statements
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Principia Mathematica

• Whitehead and Russell (1910 1913)
• Three Volumes, 2000 pages
• Attempted to axiomatize mathematical reasoning
• Define mathematical entities (like numbers) using
  logic
• Derive mathematical truths by following
  mechanical rules of inference
• Claimed to be complete and consistent
• All true theorems could be derived
• No falsehoods could be derived

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Russells Paradox

• Some sets are not members of themselves
• set of all Even Numbers
• Some sets are members of themselves
• set of all things that are non-Even Numbers
• S the set of all sets that are not
• members of themselves
• Is S a member of itself?

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Russells Paradox

• S set of all sets that are not members of
  themselves
• Is S a member of itself?
• If S is an element of S, then S is a member of
  itself and should not be in S.
• If S is not an element of S, then S is not a
  member of itself, and should be in S.

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Epimenides Paradox

• Epidenides (a Cretan)
• All Cretans are liars.
• Equivalently
• This statement is false.

Russells types can help with the set paradox,
but not with these.
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Kurt Gödel

• Born 1906 in Brno (now Czech Republic, then
  Austria-Hungary)
• 1931 publishes Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze
  der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme
  (On Formally Undecidable Propositions of
  Principia Mathematica and Related Systems)

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Gödels Solution

• All consistent axiomatic formulations of number
  theory include undecidable propositions.
• undecidable cannot be proven either true or
  false inside the system.

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Gödels Theorem

• In the Principia Mathematica system, there are
  statements that cannot be proven either true or
  false.

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Gödels Theorem

• In any interesting rigid system, there are
  statements that cannot be proven either true or
  false.

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Proof General Idea

• Theorem In the Principia Mathematica system,
  there are statements that cannot be proven either
  true or false.
• Proof Find such a statement

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Gödels Statement

• G This statement does not
• have any proof in the
• system of Principia
• Mathematica.
• G is unprovable, but true!

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Gödels Proof Idea

• G This statement does not have any proof in the
  system of PM.
• If G is provable, PM would be inconsistent.
• If G is unprovable, PM would be incomplete.
• Thus, PM cannot be complete and consistent!

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Alan Turing (1912-1954)

• On Computable Numbers with an application to the
  Entscheidungs-problem
• (1936)
• Code breaking Enigma

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Turing Machines, 1936
Universal Computing machine. Precise vocabulary
0, 1 Class of primitive operations Read Write Shi
ft Left Shift Right Well Formed
Sequences Correctness Completeness Equivalence Com
plexity
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http//aturingmachine.com/

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Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)

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Herman Hollerith

• Born February 29, 1860
• Civil War 1861-1865
• Columbia School of Mines (New York)
• 1879 hired at Census Office
• 1882 MIT faculty (T is for technology!)
• 1883 St. Louis (inventor)
• 1884 Patent Office (Wash, DC)
• 1885 Expert and Solicitor of Patents

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Census

• Article I, Section 2 Representatives and direct
  Taxes shall be apportioned among the several
  states...according to their respective
  numbers...(and) every ...term of ten years
• 1790 1st US census
• Population 3,929,214
• Census Office

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Population Growth

• 1790 4 million
• 1840 17 million
• 1870 40 million
• 1880 50 million
• fear of not being able to enumerate the census
  in the 10 intervening years
• 1890 63 million

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Computing Tabulating Recording Company,(C-T-R)

• 1911 Charles Flint
• Computing Scale Company (Dayton, OH)
• Tabulating Machine Company, and
• International Time Recording Company (Binghamton,
  NY)

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• IBM (1924)
• Thomas J. Watson
• (1874-1956)
• hired as first president
• In1924, Watson renames CTR as International
  Business Machines

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Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1956

• First Generation Electronic Computers used Vacuum
  Tubes
• Vacuum tubes are glass tubes with circuits
  inside.
• Vacuum tubes have no air inside of them, which
  protects the circuitry.

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HOWARD AIKEN (1900 - 1973)

• Aiken thought he could create a modern and
  functioning model of Babbage's Analytical Engine.
  
• He succeeded in securing a grant of 1 million
  dollars for his proposed Automatic Sequence
  Calculator the Mark I for short. From IBM.
• In 1944, the Mark I was "switched" on. Aiken's
  colossal machine spanned 51 feet in length and 8
  feet in height. 500 meters of wiring were
  required to connect each component.

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HOWARD AIKEN

• The Mark I did transform Babbage's dream into
  reality and did succeed in putting IBM's name on
  the forefront of the burgeoning computer
  industry. From 1944 on, modern computers would
  forever be associated with digital intelligence.

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ENIAC 1946

• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
• Under the leadership of J. Presper Eckert (1919 -
  1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907 - 1980) the team
  produced a machine that computed at speeds 1,000
  times faster than the Mark I was capable of only
  2 years earlier.
• Using 18,00-19,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors
  and 5 million soldered joints this massive
  instrument required the output of a small power
  station to operate it.

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ENIAC at Moore School, University of Pennsylvania

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Early Thoughts about Stored Program Computing

• January 1944 Moore School team thinks of better
  ways to do things leverages delay line memories
  from War research
• September 1944 John von Neumann visits
• Goldstines meeting at Aberdeen Train Station
• October 1944 Army extends the ENIAC contract to
  include research on the EDVAC and the
  stored-program concept
• Spring 1945 ENIAC working well
• June 1945 First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC
  Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

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First Draft Report (June 1945)

• John von Neumann prepares a report on the EDVAC
  which identifies how the machine could be
  programmed (unfinished very rough draft)
• academic publish for the good of science
• engineers patents, patents, patents
• von Neumann never repudiates the myth that he
  wrote it most members of the ENIAC team
  ontribute ideas

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Manchester Mark I (1948)
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Grace Hopper

• Programmed UNIVAC
• Recipient of Computer Sciences first Man of the
  Year Award

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First Computer Bug

• Relay switches part of computers
• Grace Hopper found a moth stuck in a relay
  responsible for a malfunction
• Called it debugging a computer

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As We May Think (1945)

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TRANSISTOR 1948

• In the laboratories of Bell Telephone, John
  Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley
  discovered the "transfer resistor" later
  labelled the transistor.
• Advantages
• increased reliability
• 1/13 size of vacuum tubes
• consumed 1/20 of the electricity of vacuum tubes
• were a fraction of the cost

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TRANSISTOR 1948

• This tiny device had a huge impact on and
  extensive implications for modern computers. In
  1956, the transistor won its creators the Noble
  Peace Prize for their invention.

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Logic
Turing Test (1950)

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The First Microprocessor 1971
Intel 4004 Microprocessor

• The 4004 had 2,250 transistors
• four-bit chunks (four 1s or 0s)
• 108Khz
• Called Microchip

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Xerox Parc (1970)

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ALTAIR 1975

• The invention of the transistor made computers
  smaller, cheaper and more reliable. Therefore,
  the stage was set for the entrance of the
  computer into the domestic realm. In 1975, the
  age of personal computers commenced.
• Under the leadership of Ed Roberts the Micro
  Instrumentation and Telemetry Company (MITS)
  wanted to design a computer 'kit' for the home
  hobbyist.

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ALTAIR 1975

• Based on the Intel 8080 processor, capable of
  controlling 64 kilobyes of memory, the MITS
  Altair - as the invention was later called - was
  debuted on the cover of the January edition of
  Popular Electronics magazine.
• Presenting the Altair as an unassembled kit kept
  costs to a minimum. Therefore, the company was
  able to offer this model for only 395. Supply
  could not keep up with demand.

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ALTAIR 1975

• ALTAIR FACTS
• No Keyboard
• No Video Display
• No Storage Device

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Apple (1976)

• IBM's major competitor was a company lead by
  Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs the Apple Computer
  Inc.
• The "Lisa" was the result of their competitive
  thrust.
• This system differed from its predecessors in its
  use of a "mouse" - then a quite foreign computer
  instrument - in lieu of manually typing commands.
  
• However, the outrageous price of the Lisa kept it
  out of reach for many computer buyers.

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Apple

• Apple's brainchild was the Macintosh. Like the
  Lisa, the Macintosh too would make use of a
  graphical user interface.
• Introduced in January 1984 it was an immediate
  success.
• The GUI (Graphical User Interface) made the
  system easy to use.

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IBM (PC) 1981

• On August 12, 1981 IBM announced its own
  personal computer.
• Using the 16 bit Intel 8088 microprocessor,
  allowed for increased speed and huge amounts of
  memory.
• Unlike the Altair that was sold as unassembled
  computer kits, IBM sold its "ready-made" machine
  through retailers and by qualified salespeople.

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IBM (PC) 1981

• To satisfy consumer appetites and to increase
  usability, IBM gave prototype IBM PCs to a number
  of major software companies.
• For the first time, small companies and
  individuals who never would have imagined owning
  a "personal" computer were now opened to the
  computer world.

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MICROSOFT (PC) 1983
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MACINTOSH (1984)

• The Apple Macintosh debuts in 1984. It features
  a simple, graphical interface, uses the 8-MHz,
  32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU, and has a built-in
  9-inch B/W screen.

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Digitization/ Binary Numbers

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Analog Representations of Sound
Magnified phonograph grooves, viewed from above
The shape of the grooves encodes the continuously
varying audio signal.
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Analog to Digital Recording Chain
ADC
Microphone converts acoustic to electrical
energy. Its a transducer.
Continuously varying electrical energy is an
analog of the sound pressure wave.
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) converts analog
to digital electrical signal.
Digital signal transmits binary numbers.
DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) converts
digital signal in computer to analog for your
headphones.
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Analog versus Digital
Analog
Continuous signal that mimics shape of acoustic
sound pressure wave
Digital
Stream of discrete numbers that represent
instantaneous amplitudes of analog signal,
measured at equally spaced points in time.
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Analog to Digital Conversion
Instantaneous amplitudes of continuous analog
signal, measured at equally spaced points in time.
A series of snapshots
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Analog to Digital Overview
Sampling Rate
How often analog signal is measured
samples per second, Hz
Example 44,100 Hz
Sampling Resolution
a.k.a. sample word length, bit
depthPrecision of numbers used for
measurement the more bits, the higher the
resolution.
Example 16 bit
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Sampling Rate
Determines the highest frequency that you can
represent with a digital signal.
Nyquist Theorem
Sampling rate must be at least twice as high as
the highest frequency you want to represent.
Capturing just the crest and trough of a sine
wave will represent the wave exactly.
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Aliasing
What happens if sampling rate not high enough?
Thats called aliasing or foldover. An ADC has a
low-pass anti-aliasing filter to prevent this.
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Common Sampling Rates
Which rates can represent the range of
frequencies audible by (fresh) ears?
Sampling Rate Uses
44.1 kHz (44100) CD, DAT
48 kHz (48000) DAT, DV, DVD-Video
96 kHz (96000) DVD-Audio
22.05 kHz (22050) Old samplers
Most software can handle all these rates.
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3-bit Quantization
A 3-bit binary (base 2) number has 23 8 values.
Amplitude
Time measure amp. at each tick of sample clock
A rough approximation
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4-bit Quantization
A 4-bit binary number has 24 16 values.
Amplitude
Time measure amp. at each tick of sample clock
A better approximation
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Quantization Noise
Round-off error difference between actual signal
and quantization to integer values
Random errors sounds like low-amplitude noise
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The Digital Audio Stream
Its just a series of sample numbers, to be
interpreted as instantaneous amplitudes one for
every tick of the sample clock.
This is what appears in a sound file, along with
a header that indicates the sampling rate, bit
depth and other things.
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Common Sampling Resolutions
Word length Uses
8-bit integer Low-res web audio
16-bit integer CD, DAT, DV, sound files
24-bit integer DVD-Video, DVD-Audio
32-bit floating point Software (usually only for internal representation)
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Computer Generations
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FIRST GENERATION (1945-1956)

• First generation computers were characterized
  by the fact that operating instructions were
  made-to-order for the specific task for which the
  computer was to be used. Each computer had a
  different binary-coded program called a machine
  language that told it how to operate. This made
  the computer difficult to program and limited its
  versatility and speed. Other distinctive features
  of first generation computers were the use of
  vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking
  size) and magnetic drums for data storage.

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SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963)

• Throughout the early 1960's, there were a
  number of commercially successful second
  generation computers used in business,
  universities, and government from companies such
  as Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM,
  Sperry-Rand, and others. These second generation
  computers were also of solid state design, and
  contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes.

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SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963)

• They also contained all the components we
  associate with the modern day computer printers,
  tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating
  systems, and stored programs. One important
  example was the IBM 1401, which was universally
  accepted throughout industry, and is considered
  by many to be the Model T of the computer
  industry. By 1965, most large business routinely
  processed financial information using second
  generation computers.

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THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)

• Though transistors were clearly an improvement
  over the vacuum tube, they still generated a
  great deal of heat, which damaged the computer's
  sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock
  eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer
  with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated
  circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three
  electronic components onto a small silicon disc,
  which was made from quartz. Scientists later
  managed to fit even more components on a single
  chip, called a semiconductor.

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THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)

• As a result, computers became ever smaller as
  more components were squeezed onto the chip.
  Another third-generation development included the
  use of an operating system that allowed machines
  to run many different programs at once with a
  central program that monitored and coordinated
  the computer's memory.

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FOURTH GENERATION (1971-Present)

• In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer
  (PC) for use in the home, office and schools. The
  1980's saw an expansion in computer use in all
  three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the
  personal computer even more affordable. The
  number of personal computers in use more than
  doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in
  1982.

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FOURTH GENERATION (1971-1990)

• Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used.
  Computers continued their trend toward a smaller
  size, working their way down from desktop to
  laptop computers (which could fit inside a
  briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a
  breast pocket). In direct competition with IBM's
  PC was Apple's Macintosh line, introduced in
  1984. Notable for its user-friendly design, the
  Macintosh offered an operating system that
  allowed users to move screen icons instead of
  typing instructions

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Contemporary Computers

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Logic

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Robotics and Automation

• Both involve computers, physical world, geometry
• Both engage many disciplines
• robota coined in 1920 (Capek)
• Emphasizes unpredictable environments like homes,
  undersea
• automation coined in 1948 (Ford Motors)
• Emphasizes predictable environments like
  factories, labs

robotics
automation
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Short Films on Computing Logic by Machine
(Computer and the Mind of Man)http//www.archive
.org/details/logic_by_machine_1 14
minhttp//www.archive.org/details/logic_by_machin
e_2 15 min

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Lev Manovich on New Media

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What is New Media ?New media are often defined
as digital/computational. I'd like to explore an
alternate definition where digital/computational
media are one example of a broader class of "New"
media. Here's a sketch of theargument1.
medium from latin "medius" intervening
element an element that
facilitates transformation from A to B
eg, change in form clay, paint,
plastic, ... special case
an element that facilitates communication
between A and B. eg. printing press,, radio,
internet, ... thus a medium is
an agent for transformation.2. consider two
classes of medium singular
can be used once eg, paint, thermoset polymers
reconfigurable can be reused eg,
radio, thermoplastic polymers (plastics)3.
reconfigurable media are essentially flexible,
available for use (cf. Bestand, Gestell).
ie reconfigurable media are tranformable agents
for
transformation. (doubly transformative)4.
proposal define "new" media as reconfigurable
media eg, new media are
tranformable agents for transformation.
(always available, doubly
transformative, postmodern technology)
examples computers, the intert, nanotechnology,
stem cells, (includes
digital/computational but is much broader)
We might define New Media as "Means
without Ends".
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(No Transcript)
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Humanities
Philosophy
Rhetoric
Journalism
Art History
Education
Architecture
iSchool
Film Studies
Public Health
Theater
IEOR
BAMPFA
Music
EECS
Art Practice
ME
Art/Design
Technology
BioE
New Media Initiative
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Mission To critically analyze and help shape
developments in new media from para-disciplinary
and global perspectives that emphasize humanities
and the public interest. bcnm.berkeley.edu
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Information was gathered from the following
  sites
• http//www.pbs.org/nerds/timeline/micro.html
  (Triumph Of The Nerds)
• http//www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/comp_
  hd.html (Digital Century)
• http//humlink.humanities.mcmaster.ca/dalberto/co
  mweb.htm (History of Computers)

105
FIFTH GENERATION (Future)

• Many advances in the science of computer design
  and technology are coming together to enable the
  creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such
  engineering advances are parallel processing,
  which replaces von Neumann's single central
  processing unit design with a system harnessing
  the power of many CPUs to work as one. Another
  advance is superconductor technology, which
  allows the flow of electricity with little or no
  resistance, greatly improving the speed of
  information flow.

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FIFTH GENERATION (Future)

• Computers today have some attributes of fifth
  generation computers. For example, expert systems
  assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying
  the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in
  assessing a patient's needs. It will take several
  more years of development before expert systems
  are in widespread use.