Ap psychology: unit III

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Introductory Psychology Developmental Psychology

• Ap psychology unit III

From egghood to personhood
Stage Span
Infancy Newborn to toddler
Childhood Toddler to teenager
Topic Infancy Childhood
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Infancy Childhood Physical Development

• Part one

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Physical Brain Development

• During prenatal
  
  development, the brain
  
  produces 250,000 neurons/minute
• Peak 28 billion neurons at
  
  7 months (prenatal)
• By birth, this number has been pruned to 23
  billion
• By the end of the first year, the brain is about
  35 larger than it was at birth

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Physical Brain Development

• Brain development unfolds according to genetic
  instructions, causing various bodily and mental
  functions to occur in sequence
• Maturation
• The orderly sequence of biological growth
  processes
• Relatively uninfluenced by experience
• EXAMPLE
• Memory not solidified until after 3rd birthday
  known as infantile amnesia

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Physical Motor Development

• Cephalocaudal Development
• The head develops before the arms trunk
• The arms trunk develop before the legs
• Proximodistal Development
• The head, trunk and arms develop before the hands
  fingers
• Applies to both prenatal development AND
  development during the first two years

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Physical Motor Development

• Motor Milestones
• Raising head chest (2-4 months)
• Rolling over (2-5 months)
• Sitting up with support (4-6 months)
• Sitting up without support (6-7 months)
• Crawling (7-8 months)
• Walking (8-18 months)

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Infancy Childhood Cognitive Development

• Part two

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Cognitive Development

• Cognition
• All mental activities associated with
  
  thinking, knowing, remembering and
  
  communicating
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• Piaget DID NOT believe that a childs mind was a
  mini-adult mind
• Believed that cognitive development is shaped by
  errors a struggle to make sense of our
  experiences as children

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Cognitive Development

• Schemas
• A concept or framework that organizes
  interprets information
• Mental molds into which we pour our experiences
  so that the maturing brain can continually build
  upon concepts
• Example
• If Bob points to a picture of an apple and tells
  his child, thats an apple, the child forms a
  schema for apple that looks something like the
  picture

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Cognitive Development

• Assimilation
• Interpreting a new experience in terms of an
  existing schema
• Example
• Bobs child might see an orange say apple
  because both objects are round
• Accommodation
• The process of adjusting/modifying a schema
• Example
• When Bob corrects his child, the child might
  alter the schema for apple to include round and
  red

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Cognitive Development
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Piaget (1) Sensorimotor Stage

• Birth to 2 years
• Description of Stage
• The use of senses motor abilities to learn
  about the world/ interact with objects in the
  environment
• Developmental Phenomena
• Object Permanence (unfolds gradually)
• The awareness that objects continue to exist when
  not perceived
• Critical step in developing language abstract
  thought
• Stranger Anxiety
• Separation Anxiety

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Piaget (1) Sensorimotor Stage
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Piaget (1) Sensorimotor Stage

• Criticisms of Stage
• Piaget believed that children in the sensorimotor
  stage are incapable of thinking no abstract
  concepts or ideas
• Recent research suggests that children in the
  sensorimotor stage can both think and count
• Babies can
• Understand basic laws of physics
• Count (Karen Wynn)

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Piaget (1) Sensorimotor Stage
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Piaget (2) Preoperational Stage

• 2 to 7 years
• Description of Stage
• Children learn to use language as a means of
  exploring the world however, they are not yet
  capable of logical thought
• Too young to perform mental operations lack
  conservation
• Developmental Phenomena
• Pretend Play
• Animism
• Egocentrism
• Centration
• Irreversibility

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Piaget (2) Preoperational Stage
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Piaget (2) Preoperational Stage

• Egocentrism
• Example
• John, do you have a brother?
• Yes.
• Whats his name?
• Jim.
• Does Jim have a brother?
• No.

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Piaget (2) Preoperational Stage

• Theory of Mind
• 4 to 5 years
• Peoples ideas about their own and others mental
  states about their feelings, perceptions, and
  thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
• Seek to understand
• Why their playmate is angry
• Why their sibling will share
• Why their parent would buy a toy

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Theory of Mind Test
A child without theory of mind, would assume that
Sally
A child with theory of mind, would assume that
Sally
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Piaget (2) Preoperational Stage

• Criticisms of Stage
• Judy DeLoache (1987) found that children as young
  as 3 are able to use mental operations think
  symbolically
• When shown a model of a dogs hiding place, a 2
  ½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an
  actual room, but a three year old could

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Piaget (3) Concrete Operational Stage

• 7 to 11 years
• Description of Stage
• Children become capable of logical thought
  processes physical, concrete, touchable reality
  lack abstract thinking
• Developmental Phenomena
• Conservation
• Reversible thinking
• Mathematical transformation
• Developmental Limitations
• Abstract thinking
• Freedom, peace, love, etc.

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Piaget (4) Formal Operational Stage

• 12 years to adulthood
• Description of Stage
• The adolescent becomes capable of abstract
  thinking
• Developmental Phenomena
• Abstract logic
• Hypothetical thinking
• If women were in charge of countries, would
  there be fewer wars?
• Potential for mature moral reasoning

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Reflecting on Piagets Theory

• Globally influential however, todays
  researchers believe the following
• Development is a continuous process
• Children express their mental abilities
  operations at an earlier age
• Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition

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Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory

• Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
• Stressed the importance of social interactions
  with other people, especially highly skilled
  children or adults, in the childs cognitive
  
  development

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Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory

• Scaffolding
• Process in which a more skilled learner gives
  help to a less skilled learner, reducing the
  amount of help as the less skilled learner
  becomes more capable
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• The difference between what a child can do alone
  and what the child can do with the help of a
  teacher

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Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory

• Example
• If Jenny can do math problems at a 4th grade
  level on her own, but can work up to a 6th grade
  level with the help of a teacher, her ZPD is two
  years
• If Suzy can do math problems at a 4th grade level
  on her own, but can work up to a 5th grade level
  with the help of a teacher, her ZPD is one year
  not as great as Jennys

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Language Development

• Cooing
• 2 months of age begin to make vowel-like sounds
• Babbling
• 6 months of age add consonant sounds to vowels
• Holographic Speech
• 1 year Milk! or Ball!
• Telegraphic Speech
• 1 ½ to 2 years short, simple sentences Baby
  eat or Mommy go or Where ball? or Doggie go
  bye-bye
• Whole Sentences
• Preschool years

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Infancy Childhood Psychosocial Development

• Part three

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Psychosocial Temperament

• Temperament
• The behavioral and emotional characteristics that
  are fairly well-established at birth
• Alexander Thomas Stella Chess (1986)
• Easy Babies
• Regular, good-natured, easy to care for,
  adaptable
• Difficult Babies
• Irregular, moody loud, react negatively to new
  situations
• Slow-to-Warm-Up Babies
• Quieter, slow to respond to new situations

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Psychosocial Temperament

• Psychologist, Jerome Kagan has added a fourth
  temperament
• Shy Child
• Timid and inhibited fearful of anything new or
  strange
• Longitudinal research (Kagan, 1998) strongly
  suggests that these temperament styles last well
  into adulthood, although there is the potential
  for environmental influence
• Goodness of fit

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Psychosocial Attachment

• Attachment
• The emotional bond
  between an infant and
  the
  primary caregiver
• Demonstrated by a childs
  
  closeness-seeking and
  
  distress upon separation
• Develops within the first
  
  six months of life

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Psychosocial Attachment

• Attachment through
  contact
• Humans form a bond with
  
  those who care for them in
  
  infancy based upon interaction
  
  with caregiver
• Harry Harlow
• Role of physical contact, or
  
  contact comfort in
  
  attachment

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Psychosocial Attachment

• Attachment throughout
  familiarity
• Occurs in many species of animals during a
  critical period
• Konrad Lorenz
• Imprinting
• The tendency to follow the first moving object
  seen as the basis for attachment

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Psychosocial Attachment

• Mary Ainsworth
• The Stranger Situation
• Identified 4 distinct styles of
  
  attachment
• Secure
• Avoidant
• Ambivalent
• Disorganized-Disoriented

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Ainsworth (1) Secure Attachment

• Characteristics
• Very willing to explore
• Frequently touched base
• Wary of strangers, but calm as long as the
  mother was nearby
• When the mother left, the infant was noticeably
  upset however, he or she was easily soothed upon
  her return
• Generally corresponds to secure attachment in
  adulthood

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Ainsworth (2) Avoidant Attachment

• Characteristics
• Only somewhat willing to explore
• Did not touch base
• Did not look at strangers
• Reacted very little to mothers
  
  absence or to her return
• Generally corresponds to dismissive attachment
  in adulthood

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Ainsworth (3) Ambivalent Attachment

• Characteristics
• Unwilling to explore clingy
• Very upset by strangers regardless of mothers
  presence
• Very upset by mothers departure not easily
  soothed
• Mixed reaction to mothers return
• Generally corresponds to preoccupied
  attachment in adulthood

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Ainsworth (4) Disorganized Attachment

• Characteristics
• Subsequent studies by Mary
  
  Main Erik Hesse (1990)
• Sometimes referred to as
  
  Disorganized-Disoriented
  Attachment
• Generally fearful with dazed
  
  and depressed expression
• Unable to decide how they
  
  should react to their mothers return
  little to no eye contact

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Psychosocial Attachment

• Deprivation of Attachment
• Impact of denying monkeys physical
  comfort
  from their mother?
• Cases of Genie and Victor
• Daycare?

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Psychosocial Attachment

• Erik Erikson
• Concept of Basic Trust
• Securely attached children tend to believe that
  the world is predictable and trustworthy
• Erikson attributed attachment basic trust to
  parenting
• Identified eight stages of psychosocial
  development first four occur during childhood
  each contains a developmental crisis
• Trust versus Mistrust (Birth1 year)
• Autonomy versus Shame Doubt (13 years old)
• Initiative versus Guilt (35 years old)
• Industry versus Inferiority (512 years old)

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Psychosocial Parenting Styles

• Diana Baumrinds THREE PRIMARY Styles
• Authoritarian
• Demanding not responsive
• Impose rules and expect obedience
• Permissive
• Not demanding, but responsive
• Use little punishment
• Authoritative
• Demanding and responsive
• Exert control by establishing/enforcing rules,
  but they also explain the reasons for the rules

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Psychosocial Self-Concept

• Self-Concept
• Understanding of who we are
• Just as infants can achieve attachment, children
  must achieve a positive self concept develops
  gradually in the first year
• Mirror Test
• By 18 months, children know THEY are the image in
  the mirror
• Children with a positive self-concept are more
  confident, assertive, optimistic and
  socialablehow is this achieved?

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Relationships with Other Children

• Solitary Play
• Children first play by themselves
• Parallel Play
• As they get older, children play side-by-side
  with other children, but do not interact
• Cooperative Play
• By about 3 1/2, children begin playing with
  others
• Peer Group
• A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances
  who give one another emotional social support