EDU 5900 REKA BENTUK PENYELIDIKAN

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EDU 5900REKA BENTUK PENYELIDIKAN
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PENGUMPULAN DATA
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OBJEKTIF

• Memahami konsep pengumpulan data dalam
  penyelidikan.
• Mengetahui kaedah-kaedah pengumpulan data dalam
  penyelidikan

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Data-collection techniques allow us to
systematically collect information about our
objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and
about the settings in which they occur.
In the collection of data we have to be
systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it
will be difficult to answer our research
questions in a conclusive way.
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Procedures for Administering the Data Collection
Develop standard written procedures for
administering an instrument
Obtain permission to collect and use public
documents
Train researchers to collect observational data

• Respect individuals and sites during data
  gathering (ethics)

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• There are many methods of collecting primary data
  and the main methods include
• questionnaires
• interviews
• focus group interviews
• observation
• case-studies
• diaries
• critical incidents
• portfolios.

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• Various data collection techniques can be used
  such as
• Using available information
• Observing
• Interviewing (face-to-face)
• Administering written questionnaires
• Focus group discussions

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• Using available information
• Usually there is a large amount of data that has
  already been collected by others, although it may
  not necessarily have been analyzed or published.
  Locating these sources and retrieving the
  information is a good starting point in any data
  collection effort.

E.g. information system data, census data,
unpublished reports and publications in archives
and libraries
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2. Observing OBSERVATION is a technique that
involves systematically selecting, watching and
recording behaviour and characteristics of living
beings, objects or phenomena.

• Participant observation The observer takes part
  in the situation he or she observes.
• Non-participant observation The observer watches
  the situation, openly or concealed, but does not
  participate.

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Observations of human behaviour can form part of
any type of study, but as they are time consuming
they are most often used in small-scale
studies. Observations can also be made on
objects. If observations are made using a
defined scale they may be called measurements.
Measurements usually require additional tools.
For example, we use thermometers for measuring
body temperature.
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3. Interviewing An INTERVIEW is a
data-collection technique that involves oral
questioning of respondents, either individually
or as a group. Answers to the questions posed
during an interview can be recorded by writing
them down (either during the interview itself or
immediately after the interview) or by
tape-recording the responses, or by a combination
of both.
Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees
of flexibility. The two extremes, high and low
degree of flexibility
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High degree of flexibility
For example When studying sensitive issues such
as teenage pregnancy and abortions, the
investigator may use a list of topics rather than
fixed questions. These may, e.g., include how
teenagers started sexual intercourse, the
responsibility girls and their partners take to
prevent pregnancy (if at all), and the actions
they take in the event of unwanted pregnancies.
The investigator should have an additional list
of topics ready when the respondent falls silent,
(e.g., when asked about abortion methods used,
who made the decision and who paid). The sequence
of topics should be determined by the flow of
discussion. It is often possible to come back to
a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the
interview.
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Low degree of flexibility
Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful
when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable
about expected answers or when the number of
respondents being interviewed is relatively
large. Then questionnaires may be used with a
fixed list of questions in a standard sequence,
which have mainly fixed or pre-categorised
answers.
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Face - to - face interviews have a distinct
advantage of enabling the researcher to establish
rapport with potential participants and therefor
gain their cooperation. These interviews yield
highest response rates in survey research. They
also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous
answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up
information. Disadvantages include impractical
when large samples are involved time consuming
and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
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Telephone interviews are less time consuming and
less expensive and the researcher has ready
access to anyone on the planet who has a
telephone. Disadvantages are that the response
rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed
questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the
extent that people without phones are part of the
population about whom the researcher wants to
draw inferences.
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Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)
is a form of personal interviewing, but instead
of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer
brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to
enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the
data, as well as saving the interviewer from
carrying around hundreds of questionnaires.
However, this type of data collection method can
be expensive to set up and requires that
interviewers have computer and typing skills.
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Advantage
The main advantage of face to face interviews is
that the researcher can adapt the questions as
necessary, clarify doubts and ensure that the
responses are properly understood by repeating or
rephrasing the questions.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the interview include cost
and possibility of bias. It is very costly to
conduct many interviews over large geographical
areas as it may involve training interviewers,
transportation and accommodation out of town.
The very flexibility of an interview is also an
opportunity for researcher bias to influence the
data collected. Facial or verbal cues may
influence the answers the participants give.
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4. Administering written questionnaires A
WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as
self-administered questionnaire) is a data
collection tool in which written questions are
presented that are to be answered by the
respondents in written form.
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Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a
large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money. People are more truthful while
responding to the questionnaires regarding
controversial issues in particular due to the
fact that their responses are anonymous. But they
also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don't return them and
those who do might not be representative of the
originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod,
2001)
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Web Based Questionnaires A new and inevitably
growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on
which you would click on an address that would
take you to a secure web-site to fill in a
questionnaire. This type of research is often
quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of
this method include the exclusion of people who
do not have a computer or are unable to access a
computer. Also the validity of such surveys are
in question as people might be in a hurry to
complete it and so might not give accurate
responses. (http//www.statcan.ca/english/edu/powe
r/ch2/methods/methods.htm)
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• A written questionnaire can be administered in
  different ways, such as by
• Sending questionnaires by mail with clear
  instructions on how to answer the questions and
  asking for mailed responses
• Gathering all or part of the respondents in one
  place at one time, giving oral or written
  instructions, and letting the respondents fill
  out the questionnaires or
• Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents
  and collecting them later.

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The Negative Side to Postal Questionnaires
The response rate is usually small which requires
a second or even a third mailing. A further more
important disadvantage of this method is that
different participants may interpret the
questions differently and certain questions can
be completely misunderstood by many or all of the
participants. To avoid this problem, questions
would have to be simple
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Personally Administered Questionnaires

• Advantages of this method include
• Doubts regarding the meaning of the questions can
  be clarified to ensure that the participant is
  answering the questions in the sense that the
  researcher intended,
• The importance of the research can be personally
  presented to the participants and its
  significance explained to them to motivate
  honest answers by emphasizing their contribution
  to the research,
• It requires fewer skills than interviewing, and
  hence relatively low skilled assistants can be
  recruited to perform this task to speed up the
  research, and
• It ensures better response rates because there is
  a personal face to the questionnaires as
  personal persuasion usually increases interest.

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Personally Administered Questionnaires

• The main disadvantage seems to be that the
  researcher may introduce his personal bias by
  giving facial or verbal expressions, which may
  put the participant at unease.
• Further in explaining questions differently to
  different people, participants may be in fact
  answering different questions as compared to
  those whom the questionnaire was mailed.

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5. Focus group discussions (FGD) A focus group
discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to
freely discuss a certain subject with the
guidance of a facilitator or reporter.
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6. Telephone Surveys
Telephone surveys may consist of polls, interview
or questionnaire survey conducted over the
telephone. Compared to mailed questionnaires or
personal interviews, they can cover a wider
geographical area in a shorter time. However the
disadvantage is the higher cost compared to
mailed questionnaire but there can be substantial
cost savings compared to personal face-to-face
interviews.
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Telephone Surveys
Anonymity of the telephone survey varies the
lack of face to face contact can both be an
advantage and disadvantage. Personal cues cannot
be given or received, hence there cannot be an
accusation of researcher bias. However, this is
not conducive to getting a greater insight into
the perceptions, feelings and thoughts of the
interviewee. Further, interviewees may not be
easy with a faceless researcher as they may fear
lack of confidentiality of their views. In this
research, the length of the questionnaire and the
nature of the questions which required some
thought was not suitable for administration over
the phone. Hence the telephone was used only to
fix appointments for interviews to hand over
questionnaires and make presentations to
academics, in some cases before handing the
questionnaires to staff.
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What Permissions Are NeededObtaining Permission
Institutional or organizational (e.g., school
district)
Site-specific (e.g., secondary school)
Individual participants
Parents of participants who are not considered
adults
Campus approval (e.g., university or college) and
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

• As we develop our data collection techniques, we
  need to consider whether our research procedures
  are likely to cause any physical or emotional
  harm. Harm may be caused, for example, by
• Violating informants right to privacy by posing
  sensitive questions or by gaining access to
  records which may contain personal data
• Observing the behavior of informants without
  their being aware (concealed observation should
  therefore always be crosschecked or discussed
  with other researchers with respect to ethical
  admissibility)
• Allowing personal information to be made public
  which informants would want to be kept private,
  and
• Failing to observe/respect certain cultural
  values, traditions or taboos valued by your
  informants.

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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Several methods for dealing with these issues may
  be recommended
• Obtaining informed consent before the study or
  the interview begins
• Not exploring sensitive issues before a good
  relationship has been established with the
  informant
• Ensuring the confidentiality of the data
  obtained and
• Learning enough about the culture of informants
  to ensure it is respected during the data
  collection process.
• If sensitive questions are asked, for example,
  about family planning or sexual practices, or
  about opinions of patients on the health services
  provided, it may be advisable to omit names and
  addresses from the questionnaires.

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