Biology 1.5

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Biology 1.5

• Mammals as Consumers

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Bio1.5 Life processes related to a mammal as a
consumer Part One Processing Food (physical
and chemical digestion, absorption, assimilation,
egestion)
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Here we begin our journey along the alimentary
canal¹ from mouth to anus The Buccal
Cavity(mouth teeth)
¹ aka digestive system, gut
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Tooth Types

• Incisors
• biting cutting food
• Canines
• tearing meat
• piercing holding prey
• Premolars
• chewing, grinding soft food
• Molars
• chewing, grinding hard food

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Pre Molar or Molar?
Premolars Bicuspid (two cusps)
Molars Quadrate (humans, some other spp) Four
cusps are arranged in a rectangle there may be a
fifth.
Hypsodont There is a lot of enamel and dentine
above the gumline and the top of the pulp. This
kind of molar is found in mammals that wear their
teeth a lot, eg horse.
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Parts of a Tooth
cement
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Functions of Tooth Parts

• Enamel covers crown, hardest substance in body,
  made of calcium phosphate
• Dentine underneath enamel, harder than bone
• Pulp cavity nerves blood vessels run through
  this
• Cement covers root, holds tooth in jaw
• Crown part of tooth above gum
• Root part of tooth in jaw (molars have more
  roots than incisors)

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How Many Teeth Do You Have?

• In humans, the first set (20 milk teeth) appear
  from age six months to two and a half years. The
  permanent dentition replaces these from the sixth
  year onwards, the wisdom teeth (third molars)
  sometimes not appearing until the age of 25 or
  30.
• Adults have 32 teeth two incisors, one canine
  (eye tooth), two premolars, and three molars on
  each side of each jaw.

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Dental Formula
method of recording number and types of teeth in
mammal jaws

• Upper i 2 c 1 pm 2 m 3 x2 16
• Lower 2 1 2 3 x2 16
• total 32

Lower Jaw
Upper Jaw
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Animal Dental Formula
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Example Dental Formulae

• Carnivores
• Cat
• 3.1.3.1
• 3.1.2.1
• Dog
• 3.1.4.2
• 3.1.4.3

• Herbivores
• Cow
• 0.0.3.3
• 4.0.3.3
• Horse
• 3.1.3/4.3
• 3.1.3.3
• Rabbit
• 2.0.3.3
• 1.0.2.3
• Sheep
• 0.0.3.3
• 3.0.3.3

• Omnivores
• Pig
• 3.1.4.3
• 3.1.4.3
• Human
• 2.1.2.3
• 2.1.2.3

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Herbivore Teeth - Sheep

• Sharp lower incisors
• Cutting grass
• Bony pad
• For incisors to cut against
• Gap diastema
• Clear food, protrude tongue to grasp grass
• Molars
• Grinding plant material
• eyes face forward
• Watch for predators

Diastema
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Carnivore Teeth - Dog

• Sharp incisors
• Biting meat
• Long pointy canines
• Piercing, holding, tearing prey
• Teeth right along jaw
• Chewing meat
• Overlapping teeth
• Scissor like to chop meat
• Jagged molars
• Cutting grinding meat
• eyes face front
• Focus on prey

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Root Canal

• (endodontic treatment) -- procedure in which the
  diseased nerve (also called the pulp or inside
  core) of a heavily decayed or damaged tooth is
  removed and the central pulp space of the tooth
  is filled and sealed with dental cement.
• http//www.ahealthyme.com/topic/dentalterms

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Knocked out teeth

• Avulsion injury in which a body structure is
  forcibly detached
• What do you do? See http//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlin
  eplus/ency/article/000058.htm

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Shark teeth

• Sit in scissor like rows
• Next tooth always ready to erupt
• 1000s shed over lifetime (some species lose
  35,000!)

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Pharynx
Tongue
Larynx
Oesophagus
Liver
Stomach
Gall Bladder
Pancreas
Large Intestine (colon)
Small intestine (ileum)
Rectum
Anus
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Digestion

• The breakdown of food into molecules small
  enough to be absorbed into the blood
• Physical Digestion Mechanical breakdown of food
  chewing (mastication), churning of food by
  stomach.
• Chemical Digestion Enzymes bile chemically
  break food down.

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What are physical and chemical digestion and why
are both needed for the efficient digestion of
food?

• Physical digestion occurs when food is broken
  down into smaller pieces by the teeth or the
  muscle action of the stomach wall.
• Chemical digestion is similar in that it results
  in food being broken down into smaller pieces,
  but is different in that it involves the use of
  enzymes to break the chemical bonds holding the
  food molecules together.
• Both types of digestion are required because
  physical digestion breaks up the larger pieces of
  food first, thus increasing the surface area
  available for the enzymes in chemical digestion
  to work on. This increases the overall efficiency
  of the digestive process.

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Mouth

• Digestion starts here food taken in ingestion
• Food chewed into smaller pieces (physical
  digestion)
• Saliva moistens and lubricates the food making it
  easier to swallow
• Saliva contains salivary amylase (an enzyme)
  which chemically breaks starch down to glucose
  (chemical digestion)
• Salivary amylase is made by salivary glands,
  works at a pH of 7 and is a carbohydrase type of
  enzyme
• Tongue forms food into a ball shaped bolus and
  is swallowed

Actually maltose (which is converted to glucose
in the epithelium of the villi in the small
intestine)
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Oesophagus

• Food pushed to stomach by wave of muscular
  contraction behind the food this is called
  peristalsis
• (7s for food to get from mouth to stomach)

Oesophageal Peristalsis http//www.nature.com/gimo
/contents/pt1/fig_tab/gimo13_V1.html
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Oesophagus Barretts Syndrome
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Stomach

• Large muscular bag, churns and mixes food. Food
  becomes a soupy mix called chyme, Food stored for
  4 hours
• Acid (HCl) activates pepsin a protease enzyme
  (enzymes that break protein down to amino acids),
  produced by stomach wall, work best at pH of 2
• Acid in stomach kills bacteria in food.
• Water, alcohol and some food absorbed into blood
  here
• Gastric Juice A thin, virtually colourless
  acidic fluid secreted by the stomach glands and
  active in promoting digestion (pepsin HCl)

! Churning physical digestion ! Pepsin action
chemical digestion
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Why doesnt your stomach digest itself?

• Mucous stops the stomach digesting itself
• Pepsin secreted as pepsinogen from stomach wall
  (inactive) only active when it touches the
  stomach acid.

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Haggis

• Made of sheep's or calf's heart, lungs, liver
  minced with oatmeal onions and boiled in the
  animal's stomach

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Stomach Gurglesaka borborygmi

• Causes
• 1 In stomach / upper small intestine as muscles
  contract to move food and gastric / digestive
  juices along (normal!)
• Intestinal housecleaning?
• Happens most several hours after eating this is
  why stomach growling is associated with hunger.
• 2 Can also happen when incomplete digestion of
  food causes gas (eg in lactose intolerance,
  coeliac disease (gluten))
• 3 Caused by disease include carcinoid neoplasm
  and celiac sprue.

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vVgoZbf6Jm5Mfeature
related
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Small Intestine - Ileum
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru_28disease29

• Bile is added (breaks down fat, neutralises
  stomach acid so other enzymes can work also gives
  faeces their brown colour)
• Pancreatic enzymes added (break down proteins,
  carbohydrates)
• Soluble food passes across small intestine wall
  into blood absorption
• Villi (finger-like projections increase surface
  area for absorption)
• Surrounded by rings of muscle which ensure
  peristalsis continues, forcing food along
• 7 metres long, 2.5-3 cm wide

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Villi

• Structure
• 1mm long
• Thin surface layer (epithelium) food absorbed
  quickly
• Dense network of blood capillaries to absorb
  food quickly (and transport to body cells)
• Fatty acids glycerol may reform to fats in the
  intestine lining, these may be absorbed by the
  lacteal pass to the lymphatic system and
  eventually end up in blood.
• Main Function
• Villi (and micro villi) increase small intestine
  surface area
• This improves effectiveness of nutrient
  absorption into capillaries

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Video Clips

• Small Intestine Endoscopy http//www.youtube.com/
  watch?vLn09qihUi3g
• Worm in Small Intestine http//www.youtube.com/wa
  tch?vEXuoOWb8bGg
• Tapeworm Segment http//www.youtube.com/watch?v3
  uk_aCZxmWYfeaturerelated
• Roundworm in cat intestine http//www.youtube.com/
  watch?vdB0cL3PcYZIfeaturerelated

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Peristalsis in horse intestine
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Villi
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Extra Guts For ExpertsSmall Intestine

• Size and Area
• The small intestine in an adult human measures on
  average about 5 metres (16 feet), with a normal
  range of 3 - 7 metres it can measure around 50
  longer at autopsy because of muscle relaxation
  after death. It is approximately 2.5-3 cm in
  diameter.
• CALCULATE THE AREA (use 5m 2.75cm)
• Area circumference x length
• pi x d x l
• 3.141 x 2.75 x 500
• 4319cm2
• 0.43m2 (3.141 x 0.0275m x 5m)

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Actual small intestine area

• Although as a simple tube the length and diameter
  of the small intestine would have a surface area
  of only about 0.5m2 or 50cm2, the surface
  complexity of the inner lining of the small
  intestine increase its surface area by a factor
  of 500 to approximately 200m2, or roughly the
  size of a tennis court.

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Small Intestine Parts

• Parts of Small Intestine
• Duodenum 26 cm long. Breakdown of food, using
  enzymes.
• Jejunum 2.5 m. Absorption of food
• Ileum 3.5 m. Absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts
  and whatever products of digestion were not
  absorbed by the jejunum.

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Cystic Fibrosis

• Inherited genetic disease symptoms include
  excess mucous production in lungs, gut
• Prevents pancreatic enzymes reaching small
  intestine.
• SOLUTION?
• Coughing (lungs)
• Oral enzymes (gut)
• SOURCE?
• Pigs
• more issues

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Pancreas

• Produces pancreatic juice which contains enzymes
  that breakdown carbohydrates, fat, proteins.
  These are secreted into the duodenum part of the
  small intestine where they have their action

• Pancreatic juice includes
• Lipases (break down fat to fatty acids and
  glycerol this is possible because bile has
  already emulsified the fat and raised pH to a
  level where lipase can work.
• Amylase (breaks starch down to glucose)
• Protease (breaks protein down to amino acids)
• Pancreatic duct tube connecting pancreas to
  duodenum
• Also produces hormones such as insulin which
  controls blood sugar levels.

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Sweetbreads (on mushroom risotto) Sweetbreads
also thymus, testis
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Gall Bladder

• Stores the bile made in the liver (max 50mL)
• Bile leaves via bile duct and enters small
  intestine at the duodenum

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What does bile do?

• Bile is the only non enzyme involved in chemical
  digestion
• Bile is an alkaline solution, it raises pH of
  chyme leaving stomach to ph of 8 in the small
  intestine
• Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes lipase,
  amlyase, protease these work best at a pH of 8
• Bile contains salts which emulsify fats
• Emulsification break down into small droplets
• This increases surface area so that
• Lipases work more effectively to break fat into
  fatty acids and glycerol AND THEREFORE
• Rate of absorption in small intestine will be
  faster

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Basic Emulsion Experiment

• 1 Fill a clean, empty bottle with water.
• 2 Add some oil to the bottle of water and screw
  the lid firmly in place. Shake the bottle
  vigorously so that the oil and water form a
  cloudy mixture.
• 3 Leave the bottle to stand for a while. Observe
  how the oil separates from the water and floats
  to the surface.
• 4 Add a few drops of dish soap to the bottle.
  Shake it up again.
• 5 Leave the bottle to stand for a while. Notice
  that the oil and water no longer separate but
  remain mixed. The oil has broken up into droplets
  that are held in the water by the emulsifying
  action of the soap.
• Video Science Experiment How Bile Emulsifies Fat
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vVQrtYap84zAfeature
  player_detailpage

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What does Bile do?

• Do This
• Mix a little oil vinegar in a test tube.
  Observe.
• Add a small pinch of mustard, mix. Observe.
• Results Copy title then copy complete below
• Oil and vinegar d_______ mix
• 2. The mustard emulsified the oil (this means it
  spread the o____ through the v_____)
• 3. Bile e_____ oil and fat in the s____
  i_________. This helps d_________ by breaking
  lipids like f__ and o____ into smaller pieces so
  that the enzyme l______ can work more effectively
  as it has more s_______ a_____ to work on.

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!Why does the gut have different regions /
sections?

• Why not just have one big sack where everything
  is digested in the one place?

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Large Intestine - Colon

• Water minerals absorbed, pass into blood
• Surrounded by rings of muscle which ensure
  peristalsis continues, forcing remaining
  insoluble food to rectum
• 1.5 metres long, 6 cm wide

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From Greys Anatomy pub. 1918
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Appendix

• No CLEAR function in humans
• BUT some suggestion that the appendix may harbour
  and protect bacteria that are beneficial in the
  function of the large intestine
• In some herbivores bacteria in the appendix break
  down cellulose
• About 10cm long 7-8mm wide

Appendix
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Rectum

• Temporary storage for faeces.
• When full the nervous system triggers need to
  defecate.

Anus

• Function expelling faeces (egestion or
  defecation)

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Liver

• Assimilation Food molecules packaged stored
  for use in cells (energy, growth, repair)
• Produces bile (helps breaks down fat is stored
  in gall bladder)
• Breaks down toxins (eg alcohol)
• ! The only internal human organ capable of
  natural regeneration of lost tissue as little as
  25 of a liver can regenerate into a whole liver

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How long does it take for a damaged liver to
repair itself?

• The liver is a unique organ. It is the only organ
  in the body that is able to regenerate... that is
  completely repair the damage. With most organs,
  such as the heart, the damaged tissue is replaced
  with scar, like on the skin. The liver, however,
  is able to replace damaged tissue with new cells.
  An extreme example is a patient who suffers an
  overdose from Tylenol. In this example up to 50 -
  60 percent of the liver cells may be killed
  within 3 - 4 days. However, if no other
  complications arise, the patient's liver will
  repair completely, and a liver biopsy after 30
  days will appear completely normal with no signs
  of damage and no scar. However, the long-term
  complications of liver disease occur when
  regeneration is either incomplete or prevented by
  progressive development of scar tissue within the
  liver. This occurs when the damaging agent such
  as a virus, a drug, alcohol, etc., continues to
  attack the liver and prevents complete
  regeneration. Once scar tissue has developed it
  is very difficult to reverse that process. Severe
  scarring of the liver is the condition known as
  cirrhosis. The development of cirrhosis indicates
  late stage liver disease and is usually followed
  by the onset of complications.

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A liver riddled with multiple secondary cancer
deposits
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Digestion Terms Summary
What Where How
Ingestion Mouth Food taken into body
Digestion Gut Food broken into pieces small enough to be absorbed into the blood
Absorption Stomach (a little), Small Intestine (most) Food molecules cross gut wall into the blood for transportation to body cells (via circulatory system)
Assimilation Liver Food molecules enter cells and are used for energy, growth, repair
Egestion Anus Undigested food ( bacteria) leaves the body as faeces
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Enzymes
Expand what do they do from 2011
paper Adaptations that increase enz
effectiveness from 2011 paper and lifescience pg
132

• are chemicals
• are protein
• are not living
• dont eat
• speed up chemical reactions (eg digestion by
  breaking chemical bonds between molecules)
• They dont look like this
• They look like this

Pepsin
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Visual Summary of Enzyme Action
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Tabular Summary of Enzyme Action
Group of enzyme Example Site of production Substrate Products Optimum pH
Carbo- hydrases Amylase Salivary Gland / Pancreas Starch Glucose (or maltose, later converted to glucose) 7
Proteases Pepsin Stomach Wall Protein Amino acids (actually peptides which are later digested to amino acids by trypsin) 2
Lipases Lipase Pancreas Lipids Glycerol Fatty Acids 8
Proteases Trypsin Chymotrypsin Pancreas Proteins Amino Acids 8
What does xenical do? Read
http//biology.about.com/library/organs/bldigestpa
n2.htm
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Enzymes and optimum pH

• pH affects how different enzymes function, each
  digestive enzyme has an optimum pH that it works
  best at.
• Outside of this their effectiveness is less. At
  extreme pH their 3D shape is changed
  (denaturated) and they can no longer bind to food
  particles and break them up
• explain how pH affects the functioning of an
  enzyme
• elaborate upon why different foods are digested
  in different parts of the gut.

Enzymes are not alive therefore they cant be
killed
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Enzymes and their location

• Because enzymes have different optimum pHs they
  must be located in separate regions of the gut
  therefore the food they digest is also digested
  in different locations
• Eg salivary amylase digest starch to glucose in
  the mouth (optimum pH7 which matches the neutral
  pH of the mouth). Amylase is denatured in stomach
  acid this is a pH of 2 which is the optimum pH
  for pepsin to digest protein.

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Kiwifruit vs Agar
Task Place a slice of kiwifruit on some agar.
Leave it for 10min. Observe. Copy
Complete Kiwifruit vs Agar Observations
before Observations after Inferences A
method to test our inferences
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Q Why Wont Pineapple and Jell-O Be Friends?

• A If Jell-O ads and 1950s cookbooks are to be
  believed, you can mix almost anything with
  gelatin and have it come out tasty. Ham?
  Absolutely. Carrots? Sure thing. Tomato soup?
  Mm, mm, good.
• The only ingredient that seems to be taboo is the
  one that actually sounds delicious fresh
  pineapple. Unfortunately, the tropical treat
  works like kryptonite on Jell-O because it
  contains an enzyme called bromelain, which
  prevents gelatin from forming into a solid. But
  fret not, fruit salad and mold fans canned
  pineapple doesnt contain bromelain. The canning
  process heats the pineapple to a temperature
  sufficient to break the enzyme down, making it
  oh-so Jell-O friendly.

Source http//blogcritics.org/tastes/article/q-wh
y-wont-pineapple-and-jell/ So, whats
Bromelain??? http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromelai
n
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Digesting Starch Experiment

• Did salivary amylase break down the starch to
  glucose?
• What was the evidence?
• How do we know the saliva didnt contain glucose?
• Why did we leave the tube for 20min?

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Comparing Guts of Different Consumers
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Herbivores
Koala
Goat
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Carnivores
Wolf
Vampire bat
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Omnivore - Pig
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Herbivore Gut Features(not including features of
teeth)

• Salivary carbohydrate enzymes begins chemical
  digestion in mouth (head start required to get
  max nutrients out of low nutrient diet)
• Extensive chewing breaks open tough plant cells
  increase surface area of food to aid chemical
  digestion (both to get max nutrients out of low
  nutrient diet). May rechew (cud in cows)
• Weak stomach acid diet low in protein (dont
  need to activate much pepsin)
• Large stomach to hold max amount of low
  nutrient food.
• Slow gut transit time to allow for maximum time
  to digest difficult to digest food absorb all
  nutrients in the low nutrient food
• Long Small intestine large surface area to
  absorb max nutrients out of low nutrient food
  (and allow max chance of full chemical digestion)
• Long large intestine - Use bacteria to breakdown
  indigestible fibre in the large intestine

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Specialised Herbivores
Humans cant digest cellulose (sugar in plant
cell walls fibre) as lack enzyme cellulase.
Herbivores lack cellulase too BUT may have
bacteria in their gut which have cellulase. The
bacteria break cellulose down to glucose using
some for themselves the remainder can be used by
the herbivore.

• Hindgut Digestion/Fermentation eg rabbit, horse,
  rhino, rodents
• Bacteria found in caecum / appendix this is
  AFTER the small intestine (where absorption
  occurs) so rabbits will have to eat their faeces
  in order to get the glucose provided by the
  bacteria (they may eat faeces anyway to allow for
  more digestion / absorption of nutrients).
• Copraphagy eating faeces

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vmaWXVKI-gq4
http//www.merricks.com/digestion.htmllgintest
http//www.youtube.com/watch?v8lqk7igz9L4feature
related
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• Foregut Digestion/Fermentation aka ruminant
• eg cow, sheep, goat
• Simple Version Cellulose digesting bacteria
  found in a four chambered stomach. These break
  down cellulose to glucose which is absorbed in
  the small intestine.
• Even with these bacteria cellulose is difficult
  to digest and a long small intestine is necessary.

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More detail

• Food softened in first two stomach compartments
  (by bacterial action). Bacteria break down
  cellulose to glucose (absorbed in small
  intestine) Regurgitates this food (cud), rechews
  to further break down plant matter and stimulate
  digestion (ruminating).In third compartment water
  and minerals are absorbed. In fourth food is
  digested in a similar way to in humans

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Even more detail
The four parts of the stomach are rumen,
reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two
chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food
is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of
solid and liquid material. Solids clump together
to form the cud or bolus. The cud is then
regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it
with saliva and to break down the particle size.
Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi-cellulose,
is primarily broken down into volatile fatty
acids in these chambers by microbes (Cellulomonas
spp.). Protein and some other carbohydrates are
also fermented. Even though the rumen and
reticulum have different names they represent the
same functional space as food can move back and
forth between them. Together these chambers are
called the reticulorumen. The degraded digesta,
which is now in the lower liquid part of the
reticulorumen, then passes into the next chamber,
the omasum, where water and many of the inorganic
mineral elements are absorbed into the blood
stream. After this the food is moved to the true
stomach, the abomasum. The abomasum is the direct
equivalent of the stomach in humans, and food is
digested here in much the same way. Want MORE
detail? Go to http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumina
nt
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Extra For Experts

• Compare the efficacy of hindgut and foregut
  digesters
• http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindgut_fermentation
  
• Compare the caecal and faecal pellets of rabbits
• http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RabbitDiet_and_eatin
  g_habits

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Carnivore Gut Features(not including features of
teeth)

• Strong stomach acid to activate pepsin (to
  digest meat)
• No extensive chewing meat easy to digest
  (chewing not needed to increase food surface
  area, swallow in bulk allows you to compete with
  other carnivores for max food)
• Small stomach but rapidly expands to engorge
  food (carnivores may irregularly get food)
• Short small intestine meat nutrient rich (only
  a short small intestine is needed to absorb the
  nutrients required)
• Short large intestine (colon) - No further
  digestion / absorption of food (also lack
  cellulose digesting bacteria here)
• Fast transit time meat nutrient rich, easy to
  digest (long time not required to digest and
  absorb meat)

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Omnivore Features

• The human system is closer to that of a primate,
  who has a slightly longer large intestine and
  shorter small intestine. But both share
  attributes of both systems
• Salivary enzymes (to start digesting carbs)
  herbivore trait.
• Strong stomach acid (to digest meat), carnivore
  trait.
• Short large intestine carnivore trait.
• Fast transit time carnivore trait.

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Bio1.5 Life processes related to a mammal as a
consumer Part Two Circulation (transport of
products of digestion within the body)
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Circulation System Notes

• Organ system consisting of heart (pump), vessels
  (veins, arteries, arterioles, capillaries)
• Transports
• Oxygen (from lungs) to the cells that need it for
  respiration (to produce energy)
• Glucose (from small intestine) to the cells that
  need it for respiration (to produce energy)
• Other molecules (food, hormones) that have been
  packaged by the liver
• Wastes such as carbon dioxide to the lungs for
  exhalation

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BasicCirculationPlan
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Detailed Circulation Plan
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Heart Exterior
http//wikieducator.org/The_Anatomy_and_Physiology
_of_Animals/Heart_Worksheet
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Heart Interior
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Heart Interior (v2)
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Components of Blood

• Red Blood Cells
• Disc shaped, no nucleus
• Haemoglobin pigment binds to oxygen weakly
  (oxygen released in tissue where oxygen is low)
• Life span 4 months (dies, broken down, iron
  stored in liver)
• Made in bone marrow (ribs / breast bone)
• White Blood Cells
• Also called leucocytes
• Some engulf / eat / destroy bacteria at infection
  sites or in blood
• Other produce antibody to inactivate pathogens
• Made in red marrow of bones
• Platelets
• Help clot blood to stop bleeding at wounds
• Made when pieces of cytoplasm bud off larger
  cells
• Plasma
• Liquid part of blood, straw coloured
• Carries dissolved substances (salts, products
  of digestion amino acids, glucose, wastes
  (urea, CO2) hormones (eg adrenalin)
• Carries plasma proteins (for clotting),
  antibodies (for protection against pathogens)

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Blood Loss

• Four classes
• Class I Hemorrhage involves up to 15 of blood
  volume. There is typically no change in vital
  signs.
• Class II Hemorrhage involves 15-30 of total
  blood volume. A patient is often tachycardic
  (rapid heart beat). The body attempts to
  compensate with peripheral vasoconstriction. Skin
  may start to look pale and be cool to the touch.
  The patient may exhibit slight changes in
  behaviour. Saline solution is all that is
  typically required. Blood transfusion is not
  typically required.
• ABL about here (33). ABL allowable blood loss
• Class III Hemorrhage involves loss of 30-40 of
  circulating blood volume. The patient's blood
  pressure drops, the heart rate increases, shock,
  capillary refill worsens, and the mental status
  worsens. Saline solution and blood transfusion
  are usually necessary.
• Class IV Hemorrhage involves loss of gt40 of
  circulating blood volume. The limit of the body's
  compensation is reached and aggressive
  resuscitation is required to prevent death.

94
Blood

• How much how much can I lose?
• Allowable blood loss calculator (amount you can
  lose before you need a transfusion) and estimate
  of total volume http//www.manuelsweb.com/blood_l
  oss.htm
• NB The hematocrit (Ht or HCT) or packed cell
  volume (PCV) or erythrocyte volume fraction (EVF)
  is the volume percentage () of red blood cells
  in blood. It is normally about 45 for men and
  40 for women.
• who would need to know this? Why?

95
Bio1.5 Life processes related to a mammal as a
consumer Part Three Respiration (use of food
at the cell level) From Ass. Specification
Structure includes lungs but structures in lungs
not needed
96
Respiratory System

• Organ system (lungs etc) that its function is
• exchanging gases with the environment OR
• to get oxygen into the body and remove carbon
  dioxide.
• NOT breathing (not enough detail)
• NOR using O2 to release energy from food (thats
  respiration)

97
Remember.!

• Respiration is NOT breathing
• Breathing is inhalation/exhalation of air
• Gas exchange diffuses oxygen into the blood and
  carbon dioxide out of the blood
• Circulation delivers oxygen and glucose to the
  cells (for cell respiration) and takes carbon
  dioxide away

98
(EASIER) Respiration
99
(ATP!)
(ATP!)
(nb respiratory enzymes speed up the process of
respiration)
100
What is so important about ATP?

• The ATP molecules provide the energy needed for
  all other cellular processes.
• This energy is essential as it is used to join
  small molecules together to make larger ones
  (metabolism). It enables muscle cells to contract
  so that mammals can move. It is necessary for the
  active transport of chemicals. If these processes
  were not to happen the animal would not survive,
  as it would be unable to move, feed, grow or
  repair itself.

101
What is so important about ATP? (more detail)

• When the last bond in ATP is broken energy is
  released this is the energy that fuels cellular
  processes

• This results in ADP a phosphate ion
  (respiration recharges this back to ATP

102
(HARDER) Respirationthe process by which energy
is released from food

• Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of
  glucose molecules. Respiratory enzymes convert
  glucose into carbon dioxide and water, and
  capture the energy released in the process in ATP
  molecules.
•  
• The ATP molecules provide the energy needed for
  all other cellular processes.
• This energy is essential as it is used to join
  small molecules together to make larger ones
  (metabolism). It enables muscle cells to contract
  so that mammals can move. It is necessary for the
  active transport of chemicals. If these processes
  were not to happen the animal would not survive,
  as it would be unable to move, feed, grow or
  repair itself.
• Respiration also produces the heat that keeps the
  body of warm blooded animals above environmental
  temperature.

103
Aerobic Respiration (requires oxygen) Glucose
reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
energy (in the form of a chemical called ATP) O2
C6H12O6 ? CO2 H2O energy(ATP) Oxygen
Glucose ? Carbon dioxide Water
energy(ATP)   Anaerobic Respiration (in absence
of oxygen) Glucose breaks down without the use of
oxygen. This produces only a small amount of
energy.   Glucose ? pyruvic acid energy
(ATP)     EXTRA FOR EXPERTS The pyruvic acid is
used up in aerobic respiration so that the whole
process, may look like this   Glucose ? pyruvic
acid energy(ATP) ? CO2 H2O
energy(ATP)     In yeast fermentation occurs
under these conditions and produces alcohol
instead of pyruvic acid.
104
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105
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106
Are Potatoes Alive?
107
Evidence for Cellular Respiration

• O2 C6H12O6 ? CO2 H2O energy(ATP)
• What could we detect to prove a potato is alive
  and is respiring?

108
Detecting Respiration

• O2 C6H12O6 ? CO2 H2O energy(ATP)
• CO2 H2O ? H2CO3

109
Bio1.5 Life processes related to a mammal as a
consumer Part Four Linking (relate
processing of food, circulation and respiration
to each other and to the overall survival of
the mammal)
110
What are the links between

• Digestion Circulation?
• Digestion Respiration?
• Circulation Respiration?
• How do each help a mammal survive?

111
Expts Extra Activities
112
Digestive System Problems

• Choose one of the problems from below.
• Indigestion
• Peptic ulcers
• Constipation
• Diarrhoea
• Tracheoesophageal fistula
• Barrets syndrome
• Inflammatory bowel disease
• Celiac disease
• Irritable bowel disease

• Write a paragraph to give an account of
• The symptoms
• The cause(s)
• The treatment
• Include a labelled diagram.

113
Possible Expts

• Weet bix challenge
• Starch digestion in mouth Roberts
• Pepsin activity (LifeStudy) (2013 dil the
  pepsin (or order clear stuff, conc the egg)
• Small intestine absorbance
• Fat digestion (roberts) need to order lipase
• Bile (ppt)
• Bile (LifeScience) using mustard
• Dissections