How Humans Work

1
How Humans Work

• Lisa Shue
• Period 6

2
Table of Systems

• Nervous
• Integumentary
• Respiratory
• Circulatory
• Digestive
• Skeletal
• Excretory
• Reproductive
• Endocrine
• Muscular
• Immune

3
Nervous System

• What is it made of? brain, spinal cord, and
  peripheral nerves.
• What does it do? Controls the body in response to
  internal and external environments.
• Standards?
• b. Students know how the nervous system mediates
  communication between different parts of the body
  and the body's interactions with the environment.
  
• c. Students know how feedback loops in the
  nervous and endocrine systems regulate conditions
  in the body.
• d. Students know the functions of the nervous
  system and the role of neurons in transmitting
  electrochemical impulses.
• e. Students know the roles of sensory neurons,
  interneurons, and motor neurons in sensation,
  thought, and response.

4
2 Main Sections

• The nervous system is divided into 2 sections
  the central nervous system (brain and spinal
  cord) and peripheral nervous system. (everything
  outside the central nervous sys).
• The CNS central nervous system is the
  control center for the body. This part of the
  nervous system sends, analyzes, and processes
  messages to and from the rest of the body. The
  spinal cord is the way that the brain controls
  and sends information to the rest of the body.
• central
  nervous system-gt
• The PNS peripheral nervous system
• is the part of the nervous system where it comes
• into contact with the environment. It is whatever
• Is not in the CNS.

5
2 Parts of the Peripheral System.

• Somatic nervous system controls VOLUNTARY
  actions. Motor neurons send information from the
  brain and spinal cord to control actions like
  moving legs and hands. These are all actions that
  occur under conscious control.
• -sometimes- there are rapid responses that
  happen so quick, people dont think about it
  before movement takes place. This is a reflex
  when neurons in the spinal cord automatically
  make certain motor neurons take action. Reflexes
  keep a person from harm. Example if you touch
  something hot, you automatically back off so you
  do not get burned!
• On the other hand
• The autonomic nervous system controls AUTOMATIC
  activities like the beating of the heart and
  the persons breathing. This system help keeps
  the body alive without making the person to
  always have to think about it

6
How the Nervous System Works

• Neurons are essential in this system. They send
  impulses messages in the form of electric
  signals to the rest of the body.
• Sensory neurons (afferent) send messages from
  sense organs TO the central nervous system. This
  is how humans sense their surroundings.
• There are pain receptors, thermoreceptors -
  temperature, mechanoreceptors sounds, touch,
  and motion, chemoreceptors chemicals, tastes,
  and photoreceptors - light.
• Motor neurons (efferent) bring messages FROM the
  brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. This
  is how peoples muscles and glands take action.
• Interneurons connect the two types of neurons
  and send impulses between the two.

7
What are Neurons Made of?

• Neurons have a cell body which has the nucleus
  and most of the cytoplasm.
• NEURONS HAVE DENDRITES AND AXIONS.
• Dendrites carry impulses to the cell body of the
  neuron.
• Axons carry impulses away from the cell body.
• Some neurons have a membrane called the myelin
  sheath around the axon. The membrane has gaps in
  it, which are called nodes. Because of this, when
  an impulse is sent, the impulse jumps from node
  to node on the axon membrane RATHER THAN moving
  along the membrane this makes it faster.
• CLICK HERE.

8
Synapses?

• The nervous system communicates with the whole
  body with the help of neurons. Neurons send
  information to other neurons without even
  touching each other! HOW?
• SYNAPSES. A synapse is a gap that separates each
  neuron from another neuron. An axon terminal is
  the end of a neuron the synapse is in between
  the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites
  of a different neuron or cell. Since the two
  cells do not touch, a neuron must send
  neurotransmitters across the synapse (chemicals
  that send the impulse).
• The impulse is then changed from an electrical
  impulse to a chemical impulse.
• Synapses are essential so that impulses do not
  travel backwards.- they only go in one direction.
• The nervous system adjusts to the feedback loops
  it receives. Based on if it is good or bad
  feedback, the nervous system turns certain
  actions on and certain actions off to maintain
  homeostasis.
• Ex if something is bitter, the body will not
  want to eat that thing again, based on the bad
  feedback.
• To keep the body alive and to survive, the brain
  forces people to do certain actions. This helps
  promote and keep homeostasis.
• Ex In the medulla oblongata in the brain,
  impulses are sent that FORCE you to
  breathebecause breathing is so important!

9
Integumentary System

• What is it made of? skin and nails, hair and
  glands, andnerve receptors.
• What does it do? Protects the body, regulates
  temperature, protects pigments from UV rays, and
  produces vitamin D.

10
What does this SKIN do?

• the nerve receptors help let the body identify
  thefeel of things, temperature, pain, and
  pressure.without these receptors, people would
  not realizewhen they are in harm and can hurt
  their bodyvery badly.keeps important materials
  in and harmful thingsout! It is a barrier
  between the outside world andthe inside of the
  body.
• regulates body temp it can produce vitamin
  D. it can help control the bodys
  temperature.insulates body with a layer of
  fatloose connectivetissue underneath the
  surface. Sweat can control body temperatures,
  but also help get rid of unwantedchemicals in
  the body.

11
What does skin do

• its waterproof and it can heal
  itself!!protects pigments from UV rays- Melanin
  keeps skinfrom burning
• The epidermis has melanocytes. (cells that make
  melanin.) Melanin is pigment in the skin.
  Peoples skin color are different, even though
  everybody has the same amount of melanocytes. In
  darker people, the melanocytes just produce MORE
  melanin.
• Melanin absorbs UV radiation to protect the body,
  but too much is not good!
• to protect the body from harmful things, the
  skincreates oils. It makes the skin
  soft--However, toomuch can result in acne!

12
Layers

• Skin is made of 2 main layers. Epidermis
  dermis.
• Epidermisouter layer, thin, mostly dead cells
• The epidermis reproduces/divides rapidly because
  skin cells fall off constantly
• Older cells are pushed to the surface when newer
  ones are formed.
• The older cells are forced to be flat, and they
  lose their cell contents and make KERATIN-strong
  protein that has many fibers and is part of the
  basic structure of hair and nails.
• Keratincytes-cells that make keratin- they die,
  and when they do, they become a waterproof
  covering for the skin. This is how skin is
  waterproof and protects the body. Keratin also
  makes the skin flexible and tough so it doesnt
  break easily.
• DERMIS thick layer of skin. Living cells. under
  the Epidermis.
• The dermis has blood vessels, nerve endings,
  glands, sense organs, smooth muscles, and hair
  follicles.

13
Dermis

• Helps monitor body temperatures.
• When it is cold, the dermis blood vessels
  narrow. This way, it helps the body keep its
  heat, and there is less heat loss.
• When it is hot, the vessels grow larger. This
  makes the body warm and heat is released so the
  body will lose heat.
• The layer of loose connective tissues is in the
  hypodermis, which is under the dermis. This layer
  helps conserve the bodys heat.
• The dermis has 2 main types of glands.
• Sweat and sebaceous (oil) glands
• They release their contents through tiny holes in
  the epidermis.
• Sweat glands produce release sweat (99 water,
  1 salts and fats) to cool the body because the
  evaporation takes heat away.
• Sebaceous glands make sebum (an oily secretion
  made of fats, waxes, hydrocarbons). Sebum keeps
  the epidermis flexible waterproof. Sebaceous
  glands also secrete oils to keep the condition of
  the hair moist.

14
Hair

• HAIR made of dead cells that are filled with
  keratin
• Made by cells called hair follicles (epidermal
  cells that reach into the dermis)
• Protects the head from the suns harmful light
• Hair in the nose, ears, and around eyes keeps
  particles from entering. It traps them.
• Eyebrows eyelashes keep sweat from getting into
  eyes.
• Hair helps insulate the body from coldness.

15
Nails

• Nails grow from the nail root. The nail root is
  an area of cells growing very fast. When the
  cells divide, the nail root cells fill up on
  keratin and make strong nails that help protect
  fingers toes.
• They also help mammals get a good grasp on items
  and help them to be able to scratch.

16
Respiratory System

• What is it made of? Nose, pharynx, larynx,
  trachea, bronchi, branchioles, lungs
• What does it do? Brings in oxygen for the body
  and gets rid of carbon dioxide waste.
• Standards?
• a. Students know how the complementary activity
  of major body systems provides cells with oxygen
  and nutrients and removes toxic waste products
  such as carbon dioxide.

17
Starting at the mouth

• Air goes in through the pharynx a tube in the
  back of the mouth.
• It then moves to the trachea the wind pipe.
• On top of the trachea is the larynx which
  contains the vocal cords. From the layrnx, the
  air journeys through the trachea to 2 bronchi.
  These are large passageways in the chest cavity,
  each leading to a lung. In the lung, the bronchi
  extend to become smaller bronchi called
  bronchioles then the bronchioles divide into
  alveoli tiny air sacs in clusters, surrounded
  by capillaries.
• THIS IS WHERE GAS EXCHANGE OCCURS!!

18
Gas Exchange

• In the Alveoli
• OXYGEN dissolves because of the moisture in the
  inner part of the alveoli. The oxygen then
  diffuses across the capillary walls into the
  bloodstream.
• Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, diffuses in
  the opposite direction, from the blood to the
  alveoli. So then the air is exhaled.getting rid
  of the CO2!

19
Inhaling

• When you breathe, air pressure, not muscle, is
  what moves the air into the lungs. However,
  muscle is needed to inflate lungs.
• Lungs are in 2 sacs in the chest cavity.
• There is a muscle under the chest cavity that
  expands the chest cavity volume when the person
  is inhaling. This produces a partial vacuum in
  the chest cavity! This only will happen if the
  cavity is sealed, because a puncture to the chest
  can cause air to leak, and breathing would not
  work!

20
Exhaling

• As the diaphragm relaxes, the person exhales.
  This is because the pressure in the cavity is
  GREATER than the outside atmospheric pressure.
  Air must come back out from the lungs.
• However, even though exhaling is usually passive,
  if you voluntarily exhale, more muscle and force
  is required. Therefore, there are muscles around
  the chest cavity that contract as the diaphragm
  relaxes. These muscles help make enough force to
  blow air out.
• Video---CLICK HERE.
• Animation

21
Circulatory System

• What is it made of? Heart, blood vessels, blood
• Function? To circulate blood through everywhere
  in the body. To get rid of wastes (Co2) and
  supply oxygen to all organs and tissues.
• Standards?
• a. Students know how the complementary activity
  of major body systems provides cells with oxygen
  and nutrients and removes toxic waste products
  such as carbon dioxide.

22
Heart.

• Structure of the heart muscle
• Septum/wall separates the LEFT section from the
  RIGHT
• Upper chamber receives blood from the body
  (atrium)
• Lower chamber pumps blood out to the body
  (ventricle)
• There are 4 chambers. Two of each kind. (A right
  and left for each)

23
Types of circulation

• There is two types of circulation.
• Pulmonary circulation on the right side of the
  heart. Pumps oxygen deprived blood from the
  HEART to LUNGS.
• At the lungs, carbon dioxide leaves the blood and
  oxygen is now in the blood. The oxygen-full blood
  then goes into the hearts left side, and is
  pumped to the rest of the body.
• Systemic circulation left side of the heart.
  Pumps oxygen-RICH blood that came from the lungs
  to the HEART and to the WHOLE BODY.
• When the cells take oxygen from the blood, the
  blood now is poor in oxygen. The blood then goes
  back to the right side of the heart and is pumped
  to the lungs.
• Valves in the heart (flaps of connective tissue)
  are very useful in this system. They keep the
  oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood from mixing.
  Furthermore, they prevent blood flowing out the
  heart from flowing back in. Valves in veins also
  keep blood from flowing the wrong way.
• Animation

24

• (Animation from here)

25
How does the heart beat?

• Both the atria and the ventricles have a network
  of muscle fibers. Whenever one fiber is
  stimulated, the whole network is.
• A group of cardiac muscle cells (sinoatrial node
  in the right atrium) gives the signal to
  contract. The Atrium contracts.
• Then the signal is picked up by a network of
  fibers in the atria called atrioventricular node.
  The signal is then transferred to a network of
  fibers in the ventricles..which causes the
  ventricles to contract.
• Heres the pattern
• Network in atria contracts-gt blood goes out
  ventricles
• From ventricles-gt blood moves out of the heart
  and through the body.
• Animation

26
Blood vessels

• Blood vessels are how the blood gets around the
  body.
• 3 types ARTERIES, VEINS, CAPILLARIES.
• Arteries are big vessels. They carry oxygen rich
  blood TO the body (except for pulmonary
  arteries). Thick walls withstand pressure that
  the heart creates when it pushes blood into these
  arteries. Elasticity helps it withstand pressure.

27
Capillaries

• Capillaries smallest blood vessels. Only 1 cell
  wideso blood cells must line up in single file
  before going through the capillaries. These
  vessels are important because they are the site
  where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
  from the alveoli to blood cells, and vice versa.

28
Veins

• Veins bring back oxygen to the heart. Many veins
  are located near skeletal muscles, because the
  movement of blood in veins is against gravity.
  Muscles contracting help move the blood. Also,
  that is why in large veins, there are valves to
  prevent blood from flowing back down.

Example of a vein and a valve that controls the
blood flow-gt
29
Digestive System

• Function to break down food into pieces so that
  the bodys cells can use it more easier to make
  it into energy.
• Composed of mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
  small and large intestines, salivary glands,
  pancreas, liver.
• Standards
• f.Students know the individual functions and
  sites of secretion of digestive enzymes
  (amylases, proteases, nucleases, lipases),
  stomach acid, and bile salts.
• g.Students know the homeostatic role of the
  kidneys in the removal of nitrogenous wastes and
  the role of the liver in blood detoxification and
  glucose balance.

30
Traveling through the digestive system.

• First, we start at the mouth. The mouth
  mechanically breaks food into smaller pieces with
  strong teeth.
• In the mouth, salivary glands release saliva,
  which makes food easier to eat. It also begins
  digesting food. Saliva has an enzyme amylase-
  which breaks down starches and breaks chemical
  bonds between sugar and starches.

31
The Esophagus

• The food next goes down the esophagus.. Into the
  stomach. The esophagus is a tube that transports
  food its smooth muscles push the food down.
• A cardiac sphincter prevents food from coming
  back up the esophagus, but overeating can make it
  open.

32
In the stomach

• The contractions from its smooth muscles help mix
  the food.
• The stomach lining has gastriac glands that
  release secretions..
• Mucus protects stomach wall
• Hydrochloric acid makes stomach contents acidic
• Pepsin enzyme that digests protein
• Stomach acids fluids mixed together. CHYME
• After the stomach, the chyme goes into the
  duodenum, the 1st part of the small intestine.
  Here, most of the chemical digestionoccurs.
• The chyme is mixed with enzymes and secretions
  from the pancreas, liver, and drodenum lining.
• The chyme is still being digested .. . . . .

33
Extra Info..

• Pancreas below the stomach. It is a gland that
  makes hormones to control blood sugar levels.
• It makes enzymes that break down carbohydrates,
  proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. (proteases,
  nucleases, lipases)
• Kidneys homeostatic role removes waste as urine
• Liver above the stomach.
• Makes bile fluid with lipids and salts in it to
  dissolve fats, store glucose, and break down
  toxic substances. The bile fluid is stored in an
  organ called the gall gladder.

34
Intestines

• Small Intestines
• The chyme, now, is mostly digested!
• The small intestine absorbs the nutrients from
  the chyme. The surface of the intestine is
  covered in villi and microvilli. Each villus is a
  network of blood capillaries and vessels that
  absorb and transport nutrients. The small
  intestine uses its smooth muscles to contract and
  move the chyme.

35
Last stop large intestines!

• Large Intestines
• it is the large intestines job to remove water
  from what is left of the cells. After water is
  moved across the large intestine wall, what is
  left is waste. The waste materials pass the
  rectum and into the toilet.

36
Skeletal System

• FUNCTIONS!
• It supports the body to stand up and supports
  soft tissues. Its the framework of the body.
  Gives muscles something to attach to, so it helps
  movement. Bones are the things that move when
  muscles contract. Bones can act as levers.
• -to protect internal organs from damage.
• -bones store and release chemicals and helps
  maintain the amount of chemicals.
• Made of BONES AND CARTILAGE, TENDONS, AND
  LIGAMENTS

37
Bones.

• Bones are active tissues. They are made of
  special cells (found only in bones) and protein
  fibers. Calcium salts surround those cells.
• Periosteum is a connective tissue that covers the
  bone. In this cover, there are blood vessels that
  transport oxygen and nutrients to bone.
• Compact bone is right under of the periosteum.
  But it is not SOLID. It is made of tubes of
  Mineral Crystals and Protein Fibers.
• Spongy bone is inside the outer layer of the
  compact bone.
• Spongy bone is arranged at points of stress so
  that they can support a lot of force. They are
  NOT really spongy. But-they are strong and not
  as heavy as the dense compact bone.
• Why are bones not solid? Theyd be way too heavy!
  Then
• It would be too hard to move.

38
Bone Marrow

• In bones, there is bone marrow. Bone marrow is
  soft tissue found in bone cavities and there are
  2 types. These two are important in the body.
• -red bone marrow produces red blood cells. white
  blood cells, and platelets made in the spongy
  bone.
• -bones are where blood cells are made! Blood
  cells made in soft marrow tissue inside the
  bones.
• -when bones grow old the red bone marrow turns
  yellow, and the yellow marrow is important
  because it stores chemical energy. Stores fat.
  Yellow marrow can also change into red marrow if
  there is a lot of blood loss in the body. Now it
  can make blood cells.
• -bones have storages of minerals, mainly calcium
  salts, that are significant to processes of the
  body.

39
Special Bone Cells

• OSTEOCLASTS-from the bone marrow formed from 2
  cells joining together. DISSOLVE BONE when bone
  is broken, damaged, etc so new healthy bone can
  be formed.
• OSTEOBLASTS- from bone marrow create NEW bone.
  These cells work with each other in teams to make
  new bone. These cells release mineral deposits
  that forms bone tissue. This bone tissue replaces
  cartilage. The osteoblasts turn into osteocytes
  when they are surrounded by bone tissue this is
  how they know their job is successful and
  complete.
• OSTEOCYTES- inside the bone these cells are in
  charge of the growth and changing the shape of
  bones. They maintain the actions of the other
  cells. Osteocytes know when there is damage or
  cracks in the bone. Then, these cells tell the
  osteoclasts where to dissolve the bone.
• those cells take part in ossification- when
  cartilage is replaced by bone. This happens in
  all humans, when they are babies.

40
Whats cartilage? Tendons? Ligaments?

• Cartilage made of collagen fibers and elastin.
  Cartilage absorbs shock, helps places of the body
  become flexible (EX NOSE EARS), Cartilage is
  found on the ends of jointed bones, creates an
  elastic surface for joints so they can move
  smoothly.
• CARTILAGE IS ALSO IN BABIES. When theyre
  just born. When they grow, bone replaces the
  cartilage. HOWEVER------cartilage has no blood
  vessels, so it needs diffusion to transport
  Nutrients from (CAPILLARIES) into it.
• Tendons attach muscle to bone. Tendons also send
  energy and force from them muscles to the bone.
• Ligaments connect bone to bone so they stay
  together.

41
Joints

• JOINTS are places where one bone attaches to
  another. Joints help MOVEMENT happen without
  hurting the bone. Joints keep bones apart so they
  dont hit, and they also hold bones in place.
• Three types of joints
• Slightly moveable-lets movement happen, but has
  limits. Bones are separated.
• Immovable joints-bones are fused together or
  connected by connective tissue.
• EX SKULL! The bones must be joined together to
  provide full protecting for the
• brain
• Freely movable-these joints let movement go in 1
  directions. Ex ball socket,
• pivot, saddle, hinge.

42
Excretory System

• Function maintains homeostasis. Gets rid of
  wastes (salts, CO2, urea)
• Made of skin, lungs, kidney, bladder, urethra.
• Standards
• a. Students know how the complementary activity
  of major body systems provides cells with oxygen
  and nutrients and removes toxic waste products
  such as carbon dioxide.
• g.Students know the homeostatic role of the
  kidneys in the removal of nitrogenous wastes and
  the role of the liver in blood detoxification and
  glucose balance.

43
Kidney

• Kidneys are the main organs of this system. It
  filters blood with wastes in it the kidney takes
  out the wastes, excess water, and urea as it
  passes through the kidneys artery. Then the
  clean blood returns to the bloodstream to
  circulate the body.
• A nephron is a unit in a kidney that does work.
  Each is independent and has its own blood supply.
  Blood enters through an arteriole. When it goes
  through the capillaries, the blood is filtered.
  Waste products are collected in a collecting
  duct. The waste is then led to the ureter. The
  cleaned blood leaves the nephron through the
  venule.

44
Blood filtration in the kidneys

• Filtration Occurs in glomerulus (network of
  capillaries by a structure called Bowmans
  capsule). Pressure in the blood makes water,
  salt, glucose, amino acids, and urea to go to the
  Bowmans capsule however, since proteins,
  plasma, and platelets are too large to pass the
  permeable membrane, they stay in the blood. The
  materials that are filtered into the capsule are
  called FILTRATES
• Reabsorption Most of the filtrate goes back into
  the blood by reabsorption. Not all of it is
  excreted. Nutrients and water are removed from
  the filtrate and are reabsorbed by capillaries,
  back into the blood. What is left behind is
  urine.
• Secretion as water and nutrients are reabsorbed
  into the bloodstream, secreted materials are
  being put into the filtrate from the capillaries.
  Hydrogen ions are transferred from the blood into
  the filtrate.

45
After reabsorption

• After reabsorption, urine, which is made of
  excess salts and water, is emptied into the
  collecting duct (then later out the body).
• Result filtered blood reenters the bloodstream.
  Urine is released through urethra.

46
Kidneys are important in homeostasis

• Kidneys are important in controlling homeostasis.
• Kidneys can monitor things in the blood.
• Activity is controlled mostly by what is in the
  blood. The kidney can realize if there is an
  increase in water in the blood. It can make water
  reabsorption decrease. The kidney then makes less
  water go back into the blood (because there is
  already and increase) more excess water is
  disposed of.

47
Reproductive

• Function to make children
• To make sex cells gametes
• In females function to nurture the baby and
  protect it when it is developing.
• Organs testes, epididymis, vas deferens,
  urethra, penis - male
• Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina - female

48
Creation of Children

• This system is essential to create children.
• It is NOT essential for a human to survive, but
  it IS essential for the species to live on.
• This system creates gametes -gt sex cells. Gametes
  are special from other cells of the body because
  it has half the of chromosomes.
• When an ovum and a sperm combine, it fertilizes
  and eventually becomes a new human being!!
• This system can only create active reproductive
  cells gametes - once the person reaches
  pubertyand that is when their reproductive
  organs are fully developed and functioning.

49
Puberty

• FOR BOTH THE MALE FEMALE!
• Puberty starts when pituary glands are signaled
  to create higher amounts of hormones. The
  hormones FSH and LH change the persons
  appearance, and also change their reproductive
  organs to be more mature and developed.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
  luteinizing hormone (LH)

50
Male

• LH makes cells in the seminiferous tubules to
  release testosterone. FSH helps sperm mature
• When hormones from puberty are released, the
  males body creates testosterone -gt male sex
  hormone. Testosterone makes males grow more body
  hair, grow in size, and have a deeper voice.
• TESTES male gonads. Gonads are sex organs.
• The new hormones, including testosterone, also
  make the body create sperm. Sperm is the male
  reproductive gamete (sex cell) and are created in
  seminiferous tubules, which are small tubules in
  the testes. The testes are in a scrotum. The
  scrotum is a sac, part of the reproductive
  organs, which contains the testes. The scrotum
  moves up towards the body for heat when it is
  cold, or when it is hot, the sac moves down. The
  scrotum is in charge of keeping a proper
  temperature for the sperm to be created. Sperm is
  produced in the process of meiosis.

51
Journey of the Sperm

• The sperm then travels to the epididymis, where
  the sperm is stored and matures. Then, the sperm
  moves through the vas deferens (tube) that later
  joins together with another tube called the
  urethra. As the sperm travels to the end of the
  penis, seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and
  the bulbourethral gland release seminal fluid.
  The seminal fluid combines with the sperm
  creating semen. Through the urethra, the semen
  then is ejaculated out of the body through the
  penis.
• Semen is released by the automatic nervous system
  of the mans body when he is sexually excited. It
  happens automatically, usually not voluntarily,
  when a male and female are in the act of
  reproducing.

52
Female

• Female the released FSH makes cells in the
  ovaries of the woman to make estrogen.female sex
  hormone. The female develops physical
  characteristics wider hips, growth in breasts.
• Only one egg ovum (female gamete) is made each
  month.
• Female gonad OVARY
• There are two ovaries, and in each ovary, there
  are around 400,000 primary follicles (premature
  eggs) unlike men, women do not make new eggs.
  They are born with what they have. A follicle is
  a developing egg surrounded by follicle cells.
  Follicle cells help an egg mature. Eggs mature in
  their follicles.

53
Female pt 2

• Caused by the hormone FSH, about every month, a
  follicle grows bigger and the egg goes through
  meiosis.
• Then, a large egg (containing ½ the number of
  regular chromosomes HAPLOID) and 3 smaller
  cells polar bodies- will be created however,
  the polar bodies are not important and will
  become cell waste.
• Now, the follicle has matured and breaks open,
  letting the egg travel from the ovaries one of
  the 2 Fallopian tubes. This is ovulation. Tiny
  hairs in the tube help move the egg into the
  uterus.
• The uterus thick and muscular lining is prepared
  to receive and nurture a fertilized egg until it
  grows into a baby but if fertilization did not
  occur, the egg and the lining are disposed of
  through the vagina.
• This menstrual cycle (when an egg develops, is
  released, goes to the uterus, and goes out of the
  vagina), is also called a period.

54
Endocrine System

• Made of the following glands pituitary gland,
  parathyroid gland, pineal gland, the
  hypothalamus, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas and the
  ovaries/testes.
• Function controls growth, metabolism, and
  reproduction. This system watches over the
  processes and growth of the human over time.
• Standards?
• a. Students know how the complementary activity
  of major body systems provides cells with oxygen
  and nutrients and removes toxic waste products
  such as carbon dioxide.
• c. Students know how feedback loops in the
  nervous and endocrine systems regulate conditions
  in the body.
• i.Students know how hormones (including
  digestive, reproductive, osmoregulatory) provide
  internal feedback mechanisms for homeostasis at
  the cellular level and in whole organisms.

55
Glands

• 2 types of glands.
• EXOCRINE release products through tubes, ex
  sweat and tears.
• ENDOCRINE release products into bloodstream.
  (endocrine glands secrete hormones).

56
Hormones

• Hormones affect our whole body. They are
  chemicals that transmit information to only
  certain cells that are meant to receive the
  message. Hormones cause changes in peoples
  bodies when they are growing in age. They travel
  to a specific placecalled target cells. The
  shape of the hormone must match the shape of the
  target cell so they can fit together.
• Once the receptor protein/target cell is
  activated by the protein, its activities change
  (because its shape changed!) Its like an on/off
  switch activated by the hormone.

Picture of hormones going to their target cells-gt
57
Hormones

• 2 types of hormones steroid these hormones can
  cross cell membranes of target cells easily. They
  attach to a DNA control sequence and can directly
  turn on or turn off certain genes of the cell.
• Nonsteroid hormones usually cannot pass through
  cell membranes, so it is harder for them to reach
  their target cells. The hormone attaches to
  receptors on the cell membrane, activating an
  enzyme that then activates more messengers that
  carry the message to the inside of the cell.

58
Glands functions

• Some functions for the glands of the system
• Hypothalamus makes hormones that control
  pituitary gland.
• Pituitary gland makes hormones that regulate
  other endocrine glands.
• Parathyroid glands secrete a parathyroid hormone
  controls amount of calcium in blood.
• Thymus releases thymosin during a persons
  childhood to activate the creation of more T
  cells.
• Adrenal glands release hormones that help the
  body handle stress.
• Thyroid makes thyroxine monitors metabolism
• Pancreas makes insulin and glucagon monitors
  amount of glucose in blood.
• Reproductive gonads (sex organs)
• -Female ovaries make progesterone and
  estrogen.
• Estrogen gives the woman more female
  characteristics
• (wider hips and development of breasts) and also
  help the eggs
• develop. Progesterone helps make the uterus
  ready for a fertilized
• egg.
• - Male Testis make testosterone, which make
  the male gain
• more size, hair, and have a deeper voice.

59
Homeostasis

• The Endocrine System is important in keeping
  homeostasis stable because it affects the affects
  cells, tissues and organs activities
  everywhere in the body. Hormones give feedback to
  the endocrine system to keep the body at a
  well-monitored state.
• There is negative and positive feedback.
• Most hormone systems use negative feedback to
  control the amount of hormone released. In
  negative feedback, substances are released to
  stop the release of a certain hormone.
• In positive feedback, substances are release to
  activate the release of a certain hormone.
• This is how the body knows when to release
  hormones and when to stop. Thus, the body also
  maintains homeostasis.
• EX puberty. The endocrine system gets a signal
  for when to start releasing hormones. Another
  example release of sweat when the body is hot.
  maintaining homeostasis.

60
Muscular System

• Purpose to let the body be able to move, to help
  move food through the digestive system, and to
  regulate blood pressure.
• Made of 3 types of muscles skeletal, smooth,
  cardiac
• Standards
• h.Students know the cellular and molecular basis
  of muscle contraction, including the roles of
  actin, myosin, Ca2, and ATP.

61
What the different types of muscles do.

• Smooth muscles
• are usually not voluntarily controlled. Smooth
  muscles are in the stomach, blood vessels, and
  intestines and they move food through the
  digestive system. They are connected to one
  another by gap junctions this lets electric
  impulses be transferred from one muscle to
  another one.

62
Cardiac muscles

• Cardiac muscles are only in the heart. They are
  not under complete voluntary control of the
  central nervous system. We do not have to think
  about using these muscles. Cardiac muscles are
  connected to each other also by gap junctions

63
Skeletal Muscles

• Skeletal muscles are made from alternating
  thicknesses of filaments.
• Thick contains myosin (a protein).
• Thin made of mainly actin
• THESE TWO PROTEINS MAKE MUSCLES CONTRACT! The
  muscles contract when thin filaments slide over
  thick ones.

64
How muscles contract

• In muscle contraction, myosin filaments attach to
  a binding site on an actin. This is called a
  cross bridge.
• With the help of ATP, the myosin crossbridge
  changes shape. It then pulls the actin toward the
  center, and the crossbridge is broken.
• Then myosin bonds to another actin, and the cycle
  starts again.
• Skeletal muscle contractions are controlled by
  impulses from motor neurons. The impulses tell
  the muscles what to do.
• Muscle contraction needs ATP energy!
• Calcium ions control regulatory proteins those
  regulatory proteins allow actin and myosin to
  interact with one another.

65
Immune System

• Made of white blood cells, t cells, b cells.
• Function to protect the body from and to get rid
  of harmful bacteria and viruses.
• Standards
• a. Students know the role of the skin in
  providing nonspecific defenses against infection.
  b. Students know the role of antibodies in the
  body's response to infection.c. Students know
  how vaccination protects an individual from
  infectious diseases.d. Students know there are
  important differences between bacteria and
  viruses with respect to their requirements for
  growth and replication, the body's primary
  defenses against bacterial and viral infections,
  and effective treatments of these infections.
• e. Students know why an individual with a
  compromised immune system (for example, a person
  with AIDS) may be unable to fight off and survive
  infections by microorganisms that are usually
  benign.
• f.Students know the roles of phagocytes,
  B-lymphocytes, and T-lymphocytes in the immune
  system.

66
Defense.

• Non specific defenses block everything out
• First line of defense keeps pathogens out
• Skin prevents things from entering the body
• Mucus, sweat, saliva, and tears can keep them
  from entering
• Hairs can keep dust from entering the body
• Skin-gt

67
2nd line of defense

• 2nd line of defense inflammatory response a
  reaction to pathogens entering the body and a
  response to tissue damage. In this response,
  phagocytes (cells that engulf other cells to
  destroy them) track and try to kill the
  pathogens.
• White blood cells fight invaders.
• The immune system can also make the temperature
  of the body rise to kill pathogens and slow them
  down from spreading .. This is a fever.

68
Specific Defenses

• When a pathogen makes it across the nonspecific
  defenses, it now faces specific ones. (this is
  called an immune response).
• ANTIGENS trigger the response.
• lymphocytes (type of white blood cell) make
  ANTIBODIES to fight the pathogens. Antibodies
  track certain antigens down.
• The antibodies attach to the pathogen with a
  certain, specific antigen. There are antigen
  bonding sites on the antibody, where they attach.
  
• Antibodies help destroy antigens by clumping the
  antigens into a big group. This big clump will
  draw in phagocytes and the phagocytes will
  eat and get rid of the whole clump of
  antibodies and antigens.

69
How are SPECIFIC antibodies made?
There are millions of B cells (AKA B lymphocytes
type of white blood cell) in our body. When
they develop, each cells genes slightly change.
Therefore, each cell can make a different
antibody .. But the differences are small. When
a pathogen gets into the body, the antigens on
the pathogen are detected by SOME of the B cells
only some, because all of them are slightly not
the same. When this certain group of B cells
senses a specific antigen, it produces very
quickly and releases plasma cells. Plasma cells
are specialized B cells. Plasma cells release
antibodies to clump the pathogens and get rid of
them. T cells (T lymphocytes another white
blood cell) help activate plasma cells.
70
Why do people stay immune to a pathogen if they
have already had it?

• People stay immune to previously experienced
  pathogens because their T cells and B cells
  remember how to fight against it. Because of
  this, the T cells and B cells can quickly get rid
  of the pathogens when it is detected.

71
Vaccines

• Active Immunity is when the body receives a
  WEAKER form of a pathogen and becomes immune to
  it. B cells can detect certain antigens, and when
  it does, it creates many plasma cells that
  release antibodies to destroy the pathogen. When
  a weaker form of a pathogen is entered into the
  body (a vaccine) the B cells can make antibodies
  against it to protect the body without having the
  body being harmed!

72
HIV/AIDS

• When a persons immune system is compromised, the
  body can no longer fight the disease as well.
  Therefore, the person may die from a disease that
  their white blood cells cannot fight off.

73
Whats the Difference?

• Whats the difference between bacteria and
  viruses?
• BACTERIA living things. They can be killed by
  antibiotics and medicines.
• VIRUSES are not living. To get rid of them, rest
  and help your immune system do the job for you.

74
Sources

• Sources used
• http//www.sirinet.net
• http//www.besthealth.com/
• http//www.drstandley.com/
• http//www.ivy-rose.co.uk/
• http//depts.washington.edu/
• http//www.emc.maricopa.edu/
• http//www.kidshealth.org
• http//faculty.washington.edu
• http//www.estrellamountain.edu/
• http//www.thinkmuscle.com
• Prentice Hall Biology Book
• Mr. Thiel (on the previous slide)