??ad??? S?st?

1
??ad??? S?st?µa ????µ?s??
?? d?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? ???s?µ?p??e? d??
??f?a.?? 0 ?a? t? 1.?a ??f?a e??? a???µ?? st?
d?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? a?t?st???????ta? se
d???µe?? t?? 2.????de?, d??de?, tet??de?,
??t?de?, de?ae??de? ?.?.?.
?a??de??µa d?ad???? a???µ?? e????? 8 ??f???
???e d?ad??? ??f?? p?? pe???aµß??e? ??a? d?ad????
a???µ?? t? ???µ????µe bit. ?? bit µe t?
µe?a??te?? ßa??t?ta ???µ??eta? MSB (Most
Significant Bit). To bit µe t? µ????te?? ßa??t?ta
???µ??eta? LSB (Least Significant Bit).
2
???sµata st? d?ad??? s?st?µa
?e???aµß????ta? ?a? µ? a???a???? a???µ??? ??a?
d?ad???? a???µ?? µetat??peta? st? de?ad???
s?st?µa ?? e???
G?a pa??de??µa ? d?ad???? a???µ?? 1011,0111
µetat??peta? se de?ad??? ?? e???
3
?etat??p? ap? de?ad??? se d?ad???
G?a t? µetat??p? e??? a???µ?? ap? t? de?ad???
s?st?µa a???µ?s?? st? d?ad??? efa?µ????µe t??
pa?a??t? a??????µ?. a. ??a?µat?p????µe d?a??es?
t?? a?????? a???µ?? µe t? 2 ß. S?µe?????µe t?
?p????p? ?a? d?a????µe t? p????? p??? µe t? 2. ?.
?pa?a?aµß????µe t? ß?µa (ß) ??a ?s? t? p?????
e??a? µe?a??te?? t?? 0 d. ? d?ad???? a???µ?? p??
a?a??te?ta? ap?te?e?ta? ap? ta ?p????pa t??
d?a???se?? ?e?????ta? ap? t? te?e?ta?? ?a?
?ata?????ta? st? p??t?. ???ad? t? MSB e??a? t?
te?e?ta?? ?p????p? e?? t? LSB e??a? t? p??t?.
G?a pa??de??µa ?st? ? de?ad???? a???µ??
2310. ?etat??peta? se d?ad??? ?? e???
4
?etat??p? ap? de?ad??? se d?ad???
??a 2310 101112
?pa???e?s?
5
?etat??p? ??asµ?t?? ap? de?ad??? se d?ad???
G?a t? µetat??p? e??? ??asµat???? a???µ?? ap? t?
de?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? st? d?ad???
efa?µ????µe d?af??et????? a??????µ??? ?e????st?
??a t? a???a?? ?a? ?e????st? ??a t? ??asµat???
µ????. St? t???? ??a t? s??µat?sµ? t?? a???µ??
s??d?????µe ta d?? ap?te??sµata p??
p????pt???. G?a t? a???a?? µ???? e???
??asµat???? a???µ?? a??????e?ta? ? ?d?a
d?ad??as?a p?? efa?µ?st??e p??????µ????.
6
?etat??p? ??asµ?t?? ap? de?ad??? se d?ad???
G?a t? ??asµat??? µ???? efa?µ????µe t?? pa?a??t?
a??????µ? a. ??a?µat?p????µe p???ap?as?asµ? t??
??asµat???? µ????? µe t? 2 ß. ?? t? ap?t??esµa
t?? p???ap?as?asµ?? e??a? µe?a??te?? t?? 1 t?te
t? bit t?? a???µ?? ?a e??a? 1 e?? a? e??a?
µ????te?? t?? 1 t?te ?a e??a? 0 ?.
??a?µat?p????µe p???ap?as?asµ? µ??? t??
??asµat???? µ????? t?? p??????µe??? ap?te??sµat??
µe t? 2 d. ?? t? ap?t??esµa t?? p???ap?as?asµ??
e??a? µe?a??te?? t?? 1 t?te t? bit t?? a???µ?? ?a
e??a? 1 e?? a? e??a? µ????te?? t?? 1 t?te ?a
e??a? 0 e. S??e?????µe p???ap?as?????ta? µ???? ?a
ß???µe ??asµat??? µ???? 0 ? µ???? ?a ep?t????µe
t?? ep???µ?t? a???ße?a
7
?etat??p? ??asµ?t?? ap? de?ad. se d?ad???
?st? ?t? ?????µe ?a µetat?????µe st? d?ad???
s?st?µa t?? de?ad??? ??asµat??? a???µ?
23,45 ?etat??p??µe ?e????st? t? 23 ?a? ?e????st?
t? 0,45 ???????µ???? e?daµe ?t? 2310
101112 G?a t? 0,45 e??a??µaste ?? e??? 2 x
0,45 0,9 lt 1 ??a t? 1? ??f?? e??a? 0 2 x
0,9 1,8 gt 1 ??a t? 2? ??f?? e??a? 1 2 x
0,8 1,6 gt 1 ??a t? 3? ??f?? e??a? 1 2 x
0,6 1,2 gt 1 ??a t? 4? ??f?? e??a? 1 2 x
0,2 0,4 lt 1 ??a t? 5? ??f?? e??a? 0 2 x
0,4 0,8 lt 1 ??a t? 6? ??f?? e??a? 0 2 x
0,8 1,6 gt 1 ??a t? 7? ??f?? e??a? 1 2 x
0,6 1,2 gt 1 ??a t? 8? ??f?? e??a? 1
?.?.?. S??d?????ta? a???a?? ?a? ??asµat??? µ????
????µe 23,4510 10111,011100110011001100...2
8
?etat??p? ??asµ?t?? ap? de?ad. se d?ad???
??? te???? ????µe t? d??at?t?ta ?a ap????e?s??µe
st? ?p?????st??? s?st?µa µ???? 8 bit ??asµat????
µ????? t?te ? a???µ?? p?? ?a ap????e?te? e??a? ?
10111,011100112 ?a? st?? p?a?µat???t?ta ap?te?e?
t?? p??s??ste?? p??s????s? t?? 23,45 p?? ???aµe
?a ap????e?s??µe a?????. ?p????????ta? t?
??asµat??? µ???? p????pte? ?t? ? a???µ?? p??
p?a?µat??? ap????e?t??e e??a? t? 23,44921875
9
?e?ae?ad??? S?st?µa ????µ?s??
?? de?ae?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? ???s?µ?p??e? 16
??f?a.??t? e??a? 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
?, ?, C, D, E ?a? F.?a ??f?a ap? 0 ??? 9
a?t?st?????? ?p?? st? de?ad??? s?st?µa e?? ta
???µµata ap? ? ??? F a?t?st???????ta? st???
a???µ??? ap? t? 10 ??? t? 15. A 10 B 11 C
12 D 13 E 14 F 15 ?a ??f?a e??? a???µ?? st?
de?ae?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? a?t?st???????ta? se
d???µe?? t?? 16.????de?, de?ae??de?, 256-?de?
?.?.?.
10
?e?ae?ad??? S?st?µa ????µ?s??
?e???aµß????ta? ?a? µ? a???a???? a???µ??? ??a?
de?ae?ad???? a???µ?? µetat??peta? st? de?ad???
s?st?µa ?? e???
?a??de??µata de?ae?ad???? a???µ??
11
?etat??p? ap? de?ad??? se de?ae?ad???
G?a t? µetat??p? e??? a???µ?? ap? t? de?ad???
s?st?µa a???µ?s?? st? de?ae?ad??? efa?µ????µe t??
pa?a??t? a??????µ?. a. ??a?µat?p????µe d?a??es?
t?? a?????? a???µ?? µe t? 16 ß. S?µe?????µe t?
?p????p? ?a? d?a????µe t? p????? p??? µe t?
16. ?. ?pa?a?aµß????µe t? ß?µa (ß) ??a ?s? t?
p????? e??a? µe?a??te?? t?? 0 d. ? de?ae?ad????
a???µ?? p?? a?a??te?ta? ap?te?e?ta? ap? ta
?p????pa t?? d?a???se?? ?e?????ta? ap? t?
te?e?ta?? ?a? ?ata?????ta? st? p??t?. ???ad? t?
MSB e??a? t? te?e?ta?? ?p????p? e?? t? LSB e??a?
t? p??t?.
G?a pa??de??µa ?st? ? de?ad???? a???µ??
44410. ?etat??peta? se de?ae?ad??? ?? e???
12
?etat??p? ap? de?ad??? se de?ae?ad???
??t?st???????µe t??? a???µ??? sta ??f?a t??
de?ae?ad???? 1 ? 1 11 ? ? 12 ? C ??a ap? t?
µetat??p? p????pte? ?t? 44410 1BC16
444
16
27
12
16
11
1
16
1
0
?S?
LS?
13
?etat??p? ??asµ?t?? ap? de?ad??? se de?ae?ad???
G?a t? ??asµat??? µ???? efa?µ????µe t?? pa?a??t?
a??????µ? a. ??a?µat?p????µe p???ap?as?asµ? t??
??asµat???? µ????? µe t? 16 ß. ?? a???a?? µ????
t?? ????µ???? ap?te?e? t? ??asµat??? ??f?? ?.
??a?µat?p????µe p???ap?as?asµ? µ??? t??
??asµat???? µ????? t?? p??????µe??? ap?te??sµat??
µe t? 16 d. ?? a???a?? µ???? t?? ????µ????
ap?te?e? t? ??asµat??? ??f?? e. S??e?????µe
p???ap?as?????ta? µ???? ?a ß???µe ??asµat???
µ???? 0 ? µ???? ?a ep?t????µe t?? ep???µ?t?
a???ße?a
14
?etat??p? ??asµ?t?? ap? de?ad??? se de?ae?ad???
?st? ?t? ?????µe ?a µetat?????µe st? de?ae?ad???
s?st?µa t?? de?ad??? ??asµat??? a???µ?
23,45 ?etat??p??µe ?e????st? t? 23 ?a? ?e????st?
t? 0,45 ????µe ?t? 2310 1716 G?a t? 0,45
e??a??µaste ?? e??? 16 x 0,45 7,2 ??a t? 1?
??f?? e??a? 7 16 x 0,2 3,2 ??a t? 2? ??f??
e??a? 3 16 x 0,2 3,2 ??a t? 3? ??f?? e??a? 3
?.?.?. S??d?????ta? a???a?? ?a? ??asµat???
µ???? ????µe 23,4510 17,7333333...16
15
?e?ae?ad??? ?a? d?ad??? s?st?µa
?? d?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? e??a? a?t? p??
???s?µ?p??e?ta? sta ??f?a?? s?st?µata. ?a d?ad???
??f?a ??d???p?????ta? se d?af??et???? st??µe?
t?s??. ?a p??ta ??f?a?? s?st?µata
???s?µ?p????sa? t? d??aµ??? t?? 0V ??a t? ??f?? 0
?a? t? d??aµ??? t?? 5V ??a t? ??f?? 1. ????? ta
p????µ??a µ?????p?????st??? s?st?µata µe st???
?????? t? ?aµ???te?? d??at? ?ata????s? ?s????
a?t?st???????? t? ??f?? 1 a??µa ?a? st? 1V. To
de?ae?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s?? de? ???s?µ?p??e?ta?
es?te???? sta ??f?a?? s?st?µata. Ge???? t?
de?ae?ad??? s?st?µa de? ß??s?e? p???e?? efa?µ???
st? hardware. ?a???a a?t? ?µ?? ???? t?? ?t? e??a?
p??? ß?????te?? st?? ape?????s? a???µ?? ??e?
ep???at?se? ?a? ???s?µ?p??e?ta? ap? t???
p????aµµat?st?? ?at? t?? a??pt??? t?? software.
16
?etat??p?? ap? de?ae?ad??? se d?ad??? ?a?
a?t?st??fa
? ????? p?? ep????t?se t? de?ae?ad??? s?st?µa ??a
t?? ape?????s? a???µ?? ??a?t? t?? ?????
s?st?µ?t?? µe µe?a??te?? ß?s? e??a? ??at? µa?
d??e? t? d??at?t?ta ?a µetat?????µe e????a ?a?
??????a a???µ??? st? d?ad??? s?st?µa ?a?
a?t?st??fa.
? a?t?st????a t?? de?ae?ad???? ??f??? µe t?
?s?d??aµ? d?ad??? pa???s???eta? st?? d?p?a??
p??a?a.
17
?etat??p?? ap? de?ae?ad??? se d?ad??? ?a?
a?t?st??fa
?st? ? a???µ?? 4C16. To d?ad??? ?s?d??aµ? t??
a???µ?? ?p??????eta? a?t??a??st??ta? t? ???e
??f?? µe t? a?t?st???? d?ad??? ?s?d??aµ? p??
fa??eta? st? d?p?a?? p??a?a. 4
C 0100 1100 ???ad? 4C16010011002.
?a?ade??µata µetat??p?? F 3 2 16 1111 0011
0010 2 1 A 2 D 16 1 1010 0010 1101 2 8 0 16
1000 0000 2 7 C D E 16 111 1100 1101 1110 2
18
?etat??p?? ap? de?ae?ad??? se d?ad??? ?a?
a?t?st??fa
?e a?t?st???? t??p? ?????ta? ?? µetat??p?? ap?
d?ad??? se de?ae?ad???. ???????µe t? d?ad???
a???µ? se ?µ?de? tess???? bit ?a? p?a?µat?p????µe
t? µetat??p? a?t??a??st??ta? µe t? de?ae?ad???
?s?d??aµ?. ?st? ? a???µ?? 100101012 1001 0101
9 5 9516
?a?ade??µata µetat??p?? 100111 2 0010 0111 2
27 16 1011111011 2 0010 1111 1011 2 2F?
16 11000 2 0001 1000 2 18 16 1101010001011110
2 1101 0100 0101 1110 2 D45E 16
19
??ad??? a???µ?t???
???e epe?e??ast?? µp??e? ?a ?p?st????e?
s???e???µ??e? µa??µat???? p???e?? st? ?????
t??. ?p??ad?p?te µa??µat??? p???? de?
?p?st????eta? ap? t? ????? ?a p??pe? ?a
???p????e? se ????sµ??? ap? t??
p????aµµat?st?. ?e????? µa??µat???? ?e?t?????e?
p?? µp??e? ?a ep?te??se? ??a? epe?e??ast??
e??a? a) ???s?es? ß) ?fa??es? ?)
????ap?as?asµ?? d) ??a??es? (??f?a??? d?a???te?
de? ?p??????. ??a? epe?e??ast?? µp??e? ?a
d?a??te? s???e???µ??? hardware ?ste ?a
?p?st????e? t?? p???? t?? d?a??es?? µe ??p??a
e?t??? p?a?µat?p????ta? epa?a??pt????
d?ad??as?e?). e) ??????? p???e?? st) ???s??se??
20
S?µp????µa d?ad???? a???µ??
St?? µa??µat???? p???e?? ??a? epe?e??ast??
???s?µ?p??e? se µe???? ??tas? t? µ??f?
s?µp????µat?? ?? p??? 2 e??? a???µ??. ??
s?µp????µa ?? p??? ??a e??? a???µ?? ap?te?e? ?
a???µ?? ? ?p???? p????pte? a? a?t?st?????µe ???e
bit t?? a?????? a???µ??. G?a pa??de??µa t?
s?µp????µa ?? p??? ??a t?? a???µ?? 10011001 e??a?
? a???µ?? 01100110. ?? s?µp????µa ?? p??? d??
e??? a???µ?? ap?te?e? ? a???µ?? ? ?p????
p????pte? a? st? s?µp????µa ?? p??? ??a t??
a???µ?? a?t?? p??s??s??µe t? ??a. G?a pa??de??µa
t? s?µp????µa ?? p??? d?? t?? a???µ?? 10011001
e??a? ? a???µ?? 01100111. ?????pte? ??
e??? ??????? a???µ?? 10011001 S?µp????µa ??
p??? ??a 01100110
1 S?µp????µa ?? p???
d?? 01100111
21
??ad??? p??s?es?
? p??s?es? ???eta? µe a?t?st???? t??p? ?p?? ?a?
st? de?ad??? s?st?µa e?? p??t?te ?p???e? e?d???
hardware st?? µ????epe?e??ast? ??a t?
s???e???µ??? ?e?t?????a (?????µa a????st?).
?a?ade??µata p??s?es?? sta 8 bit
10001010 00100100
10101110 11111111 11111111
111111110
To ap?t??esµa t?? p??s?es?? a??µesa se d??
a???µ??? n-bit µp??e? ?a e??a? ??? n1 bit.
22
??ad??? afa??es?
?? ?a? µp??e? ?a ?p??????e? ?????µa afa???t? se
????? ?st?s? ? p???? t?? afa??es?? ???eta? s?ed??
p??t?te µe t? s?µp????µa ?? p??? d?? t?? afa???t?
?????ta? ???s? t?? ?????µat?? t?? a????st?. ?ts?
???s?µ?p????ta? t? ?d?? ?????µa t?s? ??a t??
p??s?es? ?s? ?a? ??a t?? afa??es? ???eta?
??????µ?a ????? p??? st? ts?p e?? ep?s??
ep?t?????eta? ta?t?????a ?a? µe??s? t?? ??st???.
? afa??es? d?? a???µ?? st? d?ad??? s?st?µa
???eta? ?????ta? p??s?es? t?? afa??et??? µe t?
s?µp????µa ?? p??? d?? t?? afa???t?. ?? ?p???e?
?pe??e???s? t?te ap????pt??µe t?? ?pe??e???s?, t?
ap?t??esµa t?? p????? e??a? ?et??? ?a? ß??s?eta?
se ?a?????? µ??f?. ?? de? ?p???e? ?pe??e???s?
t?te t? ap?t??esµa t?? p????? e??a? a???t??? ?a?
ß??s?eta? se µ??f? s?µp????µat?? ?? p??? d??.
???ad? ??a ?a d??µe t?? ap???t? t?µ? t??
ap?te??sµat?? p??pe? ?a p????µe t? s?µp????µa ??
p??? d??.
23
??ad??? afa??es?
?a??de??µa afa??es?? sta 4 bit
12 7 5 12 1100 7 0111 S?µp????µa ??
p??? 2 t?? 7 1001 ???s?es? µe t? s?µp????µa ??
p??? 2 1100 1001
10101 ?p???e? ?pe??e???s? ??a t?
ap?t??esµa e??a? ?et??? ?a? e??a? ? a???µ?? 0101
5
24
??ad??? afa??es?
7 12 5 7 0111 12 1100 S?µp????µa ??
p??? 2 t?? 12 0100 ???s?es? µe t? s?µp????µa ??
p??? 2 0111 0100
1011 ?e? ?p???e? ?pe??e???s? ??a t?
ap?t??esµa e??a? a???t??? ?a? ß??s?eta? se µ??f?
s?µp????µat?? ?? p??? d??. ???ad? ? ap???t? t?µ?
t?? e??a? t? s?µp????µa ?? p??? d?? t?? a???µ??
1011 t? ?p??? e??a? 0101 5
?a??de??µa afa??es?? sta 4 bit
25
??ad??? afa??es?
?ta? t? ap?t??esµa µ?a? afa??es?? e??a? a???t???
?e???? de? e??a? apa?a?t?t? ? µetat??p? t?? se
ap???t? t?µ?. G?a pa??de??µa a? ?e???s??µe ?t?
??a? µ????epe??ast?? p??pe? ?a ?p?????se? t??
pa?a??t? pa??stas? 4 5 3 10 8 ?? p???e??
e?te????ta? se???a??.
4 0100 5 1011 1 1111
1 1111 3 0011 2 10010
2 0010 100110 8 1000
8 1000 8 1000 0 10000
?a?at????µe ?t? ??s?ast??? t? s?µp????µa ?? p???
d?? e??? a???µ?? pa???s???e? s?µpe??f???
a???t???? a???µ??. ??e? ep???at?se? sta ??f?a??
s?st?µata ?? a???t???? a???µ?? ?a ap????e???ta?
µe t? µ??f? s?µp????µat?? ?? p??? d??.
26
??ad???? p???ap?as?asµ??
(a)
1000 8 1000 8 1000 8 11000 24
? p???ap?as?asµ?? se p????µ?????
µ????epe?e??ast?? ???eta? ???s?µ?p????ta?
hardware p???ap?as?ast?. Se p?? ap????
µ????epe?e??ast?? p?a?µat?p??e?ta? µe ???s?
software ???p????ta? ??p???? a??????µ?
p???ap?as?asµ??. ?? ap?t??esµa e???
p???ap?as?asµ?? d?? a???µ?? n bit µp??e? ?a ??e?
e???? ??? 2n bit. a) ? p?? ap??? a??????µ??
???p??e?ta? p?a?µat?p????ta? d?ad??????
p??s??se??. G?a pa??de??µa ? p???ap?as?asµ?? 3x8
µp??e? ?a ???p????e? p??s??t??ta? 3 f???? t?
8. ß) ??a? p?? ???????? a??????µ?? e??a? ?
??as???? a??????µ?? p?? ???s?µ?p??e?ta? ?a? st?
de?ad??? s?st?µa. ???p??e?ta? p?a?µat?p????ta?
p??s??se?? ?a? ???s??se??.
(ß)
0101 5 1001 x 9
0101 45 0000 0000 0101
101101
27
??ad??? d?a??es?
??ad??? d?a??es? se hardware de? µp??e? ?a
ep?te???e?. ?? e?t???? d?a??es?? p?? ?p?st???????
??p???? epe?e??ast?? ßas????ta? se e?d???
hardware t? ?p??? ep?te?e? epa?a??pt????
d?ad??as?e? ?a? e?te?e? d?a???se?? se a??et???
pa?µ??? ????????. ?? d?a???se?? µp????? ?a
???p??????? se software. a) ? p?? ap???
a??????µ?? d?a??es?? ???p??e?ta? p?a?µat?p????ta?
d?ad?????? afa???se??. G?a pa??de??µa ? d?a??es?
8/2 µp??e? ?a ???p????e? afa????ta? t? 2 d?a????
µ???? ?a p?????e? d?af??? µ????te?? t?? 2. ?
a???µ?? t?? afa???se?? ap?te?e? t? p????? t??
d?a??es?? e?? ? te?e?ta?a d?af??? ap?te?e? t?
?p????p?. ß) ??a? p?? ???????? a??????µ?? e??a? ?
??as???? a??????µ?? p?? ???s?µ?p??e?ta? ?a? st?
de?ad??? s?st?µa ? ?p???? ???p??e?ta?
p?a?µat?p????ta? d?ad?????? afa???se?? ?a?
???s??se??. ???a? ?µ?? p?? p???p?????.