BASIC EQUIPMENT

1
BASIC EQUIPMENT

• ACCT-BVP1-4. Students will be able to demonstrate
  proper set-up and use of basic production
  equipment.
• Demonstrate steps necessary to set-up, turn on,
  and operate equipment according to instructors
  directions.
• Load, record, and play video/audio equipment.
• Demonstrate the use of a computer in
  broadcast/video production applications.
• Demonstrate proper picture composition
  techniques.
• Demonstrate proper camera movement.
• Demonstrate proper use of microphones.
• Identify qualities of a technically acceptable
  audio track.
• Demonstrate mastery of aesthetics to include
  composition, coordination, balance, and color
  contrast.
• Demonstrate basic lighting techniques.
• Explain the care, storage, and use of media
  hardware and software.
• Determine proper cables for set-up and operation
  of production equipment.

2
Basic Operations of a Video Camera

• A camcorder is a portable camera/recorder
  combination. To operate a camcorder
  successfully, you need to understand four
  essential controls
• Power
• Record
• Zoom
• White balance matches the camcorder to the
  overall color quality of the light in which you
  are shooting. All camcorders have an automatic
  setting for white balance. For now, use the
  automatic setting to let the camcorder read the
  incoming light color and adjust itself
  automatically. Always check to make sure your
  camcorder is set to automatic white balance.

3
Camera Work

• These tutorials are designed to provide you with
  knowledge and skills to improve every aspect of
  your camera work. They begin at the absolute
  novice level and work through to professional
  operations.
• They are also applicable to any type of camera
  work.  It doesn't matter whether you aspire to be
  an amateur movie maker or a career camera
  operator the same basic principles and
  techniques apply to all.
• To get the most out of these tutorials, you
  should have two things
• Access to a video camera. You should know how to
  turn it on, load a tape, press record, etc. If
  you're having trouble with these basic functions,
  refer to your camera manual or supplier.
• Patience. Camera work is a skill which requires
  lots of learning and practice.
• Initially it won't really matter what sort of
  camera you use, but one with a good range of
  manual functions is preferable. You can get
  choosy about your camera later.
• Although the only equipment you really need is a
  camera, if you're serious you might want to
  consider buying a few extra toys. To get started
  the best accessory you can buy is a good tripod.

4
Terminology

• It's unavoidable if you're serious, you've got
  to know some jargon. Fortunately, it's not too
  complicated. This page contains a few essential
  terms to get you started.
• Shot All video is made up of shots. A shot is
  basically from when you press record to when you
  stop recording. Like the individual photos which
  make up an album, the shots get put together to
  make a video.
• Framing Composition The frame is the picture
  you see in the viewfinder (or on a monitor).
  Composition refers to the layout of everything
  within a picture frame what the subject is,
  where it is in the frame, which way it's
  facing/looking, the background, the foreground,
  lighting, etc.
• When you "frame" a shot, you adjust the camera
  position and zoom lens until your shot has the
  desired composition.
• There is a general set of rules in the video
  industry which describe how to frame different
  types of camera shots, such as Wide Shot (WS),
  Very Wide Shot (VWS), Close Up (CU), etc...

5
Terminology

• Transition Shots are linked (edited) in a
  sequence to tell a larger story. The way in which
  any two shots are joined together is called the
  transition.
• Usually this is a simple cut, in which one shot
  changes instantly to the next. More complex
  transitions include mixing, wipes and digital
  effects. A moving shot (e.g. pan) can also be
  thought of as a transition from one shot to a new
  one.
• The transition is very important in camera work,
  and you need to think constantly about how every
  shot will fit in with the ones before and after
  it. The key is not so much how the transition is
  achieved technically, but how the composition of
  each shot fits together.
• Here are few more important terms. They will be
  explained in greater detail later
• Pan Side-to-side camera movement
• Tilt Up-and-down camera movement
• Zoom In-and-out camera movement (i.e. closer and
  more distant)
• Follow Any sort of shot when you are holding the
  camera (or have it mounted on your shoulder), and
  you follow the action whilst walking. Hard to
  keep steady, but very effective when done well.
• Iris (Exposure) The opening which lets light into
  the camera. A wider iris means more light and a
  brighter picture
• White balance Adjusting the colors until they
  look natural and consistent.
• Shutter Analogous to the shutter in a still
  camera.
• Audio Sound which is recorded to go with the
  pictures.

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PLANNING

• This is the most important step, and perhaps the
  most difficult to master. It should be where most
  of your energy is directed.
• Camera work is only one skill in a larger process
  the goal of which is usually to produce a
  completed video, TV program, or presentation of
  some kind. To be good at camera work, you must
  have a clear picture of the whole process, and
  some idea of what the finished product should
  look sound like.
• If there's one thing that separates the amateurs
  from the pros, it's that amateurs "point and
  shoot", whereas pros "plan and shoot". Obviously
  there are times when you don't have time to
  prepare before having to record sometimes the
  action begins unexpectedly, and you just have to
  go for it. In these cases, as far as possible,
  you plan as you go. It can't be stressed enough
  planning is everything.
• For general camera work, you can divide your plan
  into two parts The "Shoot Plan" and the "Shot
  Plan".

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SHOOT PLAN

• In this case, the word shoot refers to a shooting
  session. If you think of everything you record as
  being part of a shoot, and have a plan for every
  shoot, then you're well on the way to having
  better organized footage.
• First of all, be clear about the purpose of every
  shoot. Generally speaking, everything you do
  should be working towards a larger plan. Exactly
  what this is will depend on many factors.
• If you're making a feature film, then the
  long-term plan is to gather all the shots
  required by the script/storyboard.
• If you're making home videos, the long-term plan
  might be to create a historical archive for
  future generations (for more suggestions on this
  topic, see our tutorial on Home Video
  Production).
• If you're making a one-off project (such as a
  wedding video), you still have to bear in mind
  the long-term implications for the shoot.
• Planning means adopting an attitude in which you
  take control. When you get out your video camera,
  instead of thinking "This will look good on
  video" and starting to shoot whatever happens,
  think "What do I want this to look like on
  video?". You then shoot (and if necessary,
  direct) the action to achieve your goal.
• Plan the approximate length of the shoot How
  much footage do you need to end up with, and how
  long will it take you to get it?
• Have a checklist of equipment, which could
  include camera tripod tapes batteries/power
  supply microphones and audio equipment lights
  and stands pens, log sheets and other paper work.

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PLANNING TO EDIT

• This is critical. If you think that this doesn't
  applies to you, then you're wrong. Everything you
  capture must be shot with editing in mind. There
  are two basic ways to edit Post-production and
  in-camera.
• Post-production (or just "post") editing means
  taking the shots you've recorded and
  re-assembling them later using editing equipment.
  This is how the professionals work it gives you
  much greater flexibility when you're shooting and
  much better finished results. To do simple post
  editing, all you need is your camera, a VCR, and
  a few connecting leads. What it means for your
  shooting plan is that you can collect your shots
  in any order, and you can get as many shots as
  you like. At the editing stage, you discard
  unwanted shots and assemble the good ones however
  you like. This can be a time-consuming task
  (especially if you don't have much editing gear),
  but it's usually worth the effort.
• In-Camera editing simply means that what you
  shoot is what you get there is no
  post-production. The point here is that you're
  still editing. You still must decide which shot
  goes where, and which shots you don't need at
  all. The difference is that you're making these
  edit decisions as you shoot, rather than in post.
  This isn't easy, and it isn't possible to get it
  right all of the time. It requires planning,
  foresight, and experience.
• Note There is one other situation which should
  be mentioned the live multi-camera shoot. This
  is where a number of cameras are linked to a
  central vision mixer, and a director cuts between
  cameras (for example, a live sports
  presentation). In this case, you can think of the
  editing as being done in real time as the shoot
  happens.
• Whichever method of editing you use, there are
  fundamental rules to follow. Since understanding
  these rules requires some knowledge of shot types
  and framing, we'll leave them for now and come
  back to them later.

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SHOT PLAN

• Once you have a plan for your shooting session,
  you're ready to begin planning individual shots.
• First of all, have a reason for every shot. Ask
  yourself "What am I trying to achieve with this
  shot? Is this shot even necessary? Have I already
  got a shot that's essentially the same as this
  one? Is my audience going to care about this
  subject?"
• Once you're happy that you have a good reason to
  get the shot, think about the best way to get it.
  Consider different angles, framing, etc. The art
  of good composition takes time to master but with
  practice you will get there.
• Ask yourself exactly what information you wish to
  convey to your audience through this shot, and
  make sure you capture it in a way that they will
  understand.
• Take the time to get each shot right, especially
  if it's an important one. If necessary (and if
  you're editing in post), get a few different
  versions of the shot so you can choose the best
  one later.
• Also, for post editing, leave at least 5 seconds
  of pictures at the beginning and end of each
  shot. This is required by editing equipment, and
  also acts as a safety buffer.
• Finally, one more piece of advice Before
  planning or shooting anything, imagine watching
  it completed.

10
Camera Settings

• Many cameras have a menu function with many
  different functions.
• On camera editing
• Date Time functions
• Color Effects
• A default setting on a camcorder is an action or
  condition that is automatically chosen by the
  equipment, unless you actively select a different
  one.

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CAMERA FUNCTIONS

• Most domestic camcorders can do just about
  everything automatically. All you have to do is
  turn them on, point, and press record. In most
  situations this is fine, but automatic functions
  have some serious limitations. If you want to
  improve your camera work, you must learn to take
  control of your camera. This means using manual
  functions. In fact, professional cameras have
  very few automatic functions, and professional
  camera operators would never normally use
  auto-focus or auto-iris.
• This is where most beginners ask "Why not? My
  auto-focus works fine, and my pictures seem to
  look okay."There are two answers
• Although auto-functions usually perform well
  enough, there will be some situations they can't
  cope with (e.g. bad lighting conditions). In
  these circumstances you may be faced with
  unusable footage unless you can take manual
  control. More commonly, your shots will be
  useable but poor quality (e.g. going in and out
  of focus).
• Your camera can't know what you want. To get the
  best results or obtain a particular effect it is
  often necessary to over-ride auto-functions and
  go manual.
• As you learn more about camera work you will
  begin to appreciate the better results gained
  through manual functions.
• The most common camera operations are briefly
  explained below (they are covered in more detail
  in other tutorials). Starting at the beginning,
  learn and practice one at a time, leaving the
  others on auto-function.

12
ZOOM

• This is the function which moves your point of
  view closer to, or further away from, the
  subject. The effect is similar to moving the
  camera closer or further away.
• Note that the further you zoom in, the more
  difficult it is to keep the picture steady. In
  some cases you can move the camera closer to the
  subject and then zoom out so you have basically
  the same framing. For long zooms you should use a
  tripod.
• Zooming is the function everyone loves. It's easy
  and you can do lots with it, which is why it's so
  over-used. The most common advice we give on
  using the zoom is use it less. It works well in
  moderation but too much zooming is tiring for the
  audience.

13
FOCUS

• Focus is the state of an image when the lines of
  contrast appear as sharp as possible in focus.
• Auto-focus is a common feature on consumer
  cameras that keeps only the center of the picture
  in focus. It is strictly for amateurs. Unlike
  still photography, there is no way auto-focus can
  meet the needs of a serious video camera
  operator. Many people find manual focus
  difficult, but if you want to be any good at all,
  good focus control is essential.
• Professional cameras usually have a manual focus
  ring at the front of the lens housing. Turn the
  ring clockwise for closer focus,
  counter-clockwise for more distant focus.
  Consumer cameras have different types of focus
  mechanisms usually a small dial.
• To obtain the best focus, zoom in as close as you
  can on the subject you wish to focus on, adjust
  the ring until the focus is sharp, then zoom out
  to the required framing.

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IRIS

• This is an adjustable opening (aperture), which
  controls the amount of light coming through the
  lens (i.e. the "exposure"). As you open the iris,
  more light comes in and the picture appears
  brighter.
• Professional cameras have an iris ring on the
  lens housing, which you turn clockwise to close
  and counter clockwise to open. Consumer-level
  cameras usually use either a dial or a set of
  buttons.
• The rule of thumb for iris control is Set your
  exposure for the subject. Other parts of the
  picture can be too bright or darks, as long as
  the subject is easy to see.

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WHITE BALANCE

• White balance means color balance. It's a
  function which tells the camera what each color
  should look like, by giving it a "true white"
  reference. If the camera knows what white looks
  like, then it will know what all other colors
  look like.
• This function is normally done automatically by
  consumer-level cameras without the operator even
  being aware of it's existence. It actually works
  very well in most situations, but there will be
  some conditions that the auto-white won't like.
  In these situations the colors will seem wrong or
  unnatural.
• To perform a white balance, point the camera at
  something matt (non-reflective) white in the same
  light as the subject, and frame it so that most
  or all of the picture is white. Set your focus
  and exposure, then press the "white balance"
  button (or throw the switch). There should be
  some indicator in the viewfinder which tells you
  when the white balance has completed. If it
  doesn't work, try adjusting the iris, changing
  filters, or finding something else white to
  balance on.
• You should do white balances regularly,
  especially when lighting conditions change (e.g.
  moving between indoors and outdoors).

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AUDIO

• Virtually all consumer-level cameras come with
  built-in microphones, usually hi-fi stereo. These
  work fine, and are all you need for most general
  work.
• Getting better results with audio is actually
  quite difficult and is a whole subject in itself.
  We won't go into it much here you just need to
  be aware that audio is very important and
  shouldn't be overlooked.
• If you're keen, try plugging an external
  microphone into the "mic input" socket of your
  camera (if it has one). There are two reasons why
  you might want to do this
• You may have a mic which is more suited to the
  type of work you are doing than the camera's
  built-in mic. Often, the better mic will simply
  be mounted on top of the camera.
• You might need to have the mic in a different
  position to the camera. For example, when
  covering a speech, the camera could be at the
  back of the room with a long audio lead running
  to the stage, where you have a mic mounted on the
  pedestal.
• The level at which your audio is recorded is
  important. Most cameras have an "auto-gain
  control", which adjusts the audio level
  automatically. Consumer-level cameras are usually
  set up like this, and it works well in most
  situations. If you have a manual audio level
  control, it's a good idea to learn how to use it
  (more on this later). Gain is the strength of an
  audio or video signal.

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AUDIO

• If possible, try to keep the background (ambient)
  noise level more or less consistent. This adds
  smoothness to the flow of the production. Of
  course, some shots will require sudden changes in
  ambient audio for effect.
• Listen to what people are saying and build it
  into the video. Try not to start and finish shots
  while someone is talking there's nothing worse
  than a video full of half-sentences.
• Be very wary of background music while shooting
  this can result is music that jumps every time
  the shot changes, like listening to a badly
  scratched record. If you can, turn the music
  right down or off.
• One more thing... be careful of wind noise. Even
  the slightest breeze can ruin your audio. Many
  cameras have a "low-cut filter", sometimes
  referred to as a "wind-noise filter" or something
  similar. These do help, but a better solution is
  to block the wind. You can use a purpose-designed
  wind sock, or try making one yourself.

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SHUTTER

• At the beginner level you don't really need to
  use the shutter, but it deserves a quick mention.
  It has various applications, most notably for
  sports or fast-action footage. The main advantage
  is that individual frames appear sharper
  (critical for slow-motion replays). The main
  disadvantage is that motion appears more jerky.
• The shutter can also be used to help control
  exposure.

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EFFECTS

• Many consumer cameras come with a selection of
  built-in digital effects, such as digital still,
  mix, strobe, etc. These can be very cool, or they
  can be very clumsy and tacky. They require
  dedicated experimentation to get right. Like so
  many things in video, moderation is the key use
  them if you have a good reason to, but don't
  overdo it.
• You should also be aware that almost every effect
  you can create with a camera can be done better
  with editing software. If at all possible, shoot
  your footage "dry" (without effects) and add
  effects later.
• Any in camera effects you use will permanently be
  saved to your video and you will not be able to
  take them off later, so make sure you really want
  them on your film. If you are not sure that you
  want a specific effect wait until you can test it
  using the editing software.

20
REMEMBER

• Although it is sometimes the more practical
  solution to use automatic features, as a general
  rule you should do as many camera operations
  manually as you can AS YOU BECOME MORE ADVANCED
  COMFORTABLE WITH THE EQUIPMENT.
• ALWAYS START OFF USING THE AUTOMATIC FEATURES
  ESPESCIALLY IN THIS CLASS!

21
Avoiding Camera Problems

• Do not move from place to place with the camera
  mounted on the tripod.
• Avoid Quick movements and zooms in and out
• Dont pose subjects on backgrounds lighter than
  they are.
• Film a minimum of 5-10 seconds

22
FRAMING

• Shots are all about composition. Rather than
  pointing the camera at the subject, you need to
  compose an image. As mentioned previously,
  framing is the process of creating composition.
• Notes
• Framing technique is very subjective. What one
  person finds dramatic, another may find
  pointless. What we're looking at here are a few
  accepted industry guidelines which you should use
  as rules of thumb.
• The rules of framing video images are essentially
  the same as those for still photography.

23
Good Quality Video

• Head Room- means positioning subjects at a
  pleasing distance from the top of the picture.
  Dont cut off the top of someones head.
• Look Room Center your subject in the center
  from left to right only if they are looking at
  you. If your subject is looking to the left or
  right, leave more room in the direction in which
  they are looking.
• Lead Room- Allow extra room in front of the
  subject as they are moving left or right.

24
Good Quality Video

• Rule of Thirds- People tend to center subjects in
  their picture. A tree is photographed dividing
  the frame vertically. The horizon is placed so
  it divides the image horizontally. The resulting
  picture looks balanced and rather dull. You
  might call this kind of composition the rule of
  halves because the frame is divided in half on
  both sides.

25
Good Quality Video

• Rule of Thirds- If you imagine a tic-tac-toe grid
  in front of your picture, you can divide the
  image into thirds instead of halves. The
  resulting composition will be much more
  interesting.

26
Good Quality Video

• An axis is the same in video as in graphed
  algebra equations. The X axis is horizontal
  (left-to-right) and the Y axis is vertical
  (top-to-bottom).

27
Good Quality Video

• Everything in your frame is important, not just
  the subject. What does the background look like?
  What's the lighting like? Is there anything in
  the frame which is going to be distracting, or
  disrupt the continuity of the video?Pay
  attention to the edges of your frame. Avoid
  having half objects in frame, especially people
  (showing half of someone's face is very
  unflattering). Also try not to cut people of at
  the joints the bottom of the frame can cut
  across a person's stomach, but not their knees.
  It just doesn't look right.
• Once you're comfortable with the do's and don'ts,
  you can become more creative. Think about the
  best way to convey the meaning of the shot. If
  it's a baby crawling, get down on the floor and
  see it from a baby's point-of-view (POV). If it's
  a football game, maybe you need to get up high to
  see all the action.
• Look for interesting and unusual shots. Most of
  your shots will probably be quite "straight"
  that is, normal shots from approximate adult
  eye-level. Try mixing in a few variations.
  Different angles and different camera positions
  can make all the difference. For example a shot
  can become much more dramatic if shot from a low
  point. On the other hand, a new and interesting
  perspective can be obtained by looking straight
  down on the scene. Be aware that looking up at a
  person can make them appear more imposing,
  whereas looking down at a person can diminish
  them.
• Watch TV and movies, and notice the shots which
  stand out. There's a reason why they stand out
  it's all about camera positioning and frame
  composition. Experiment all the time.

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SHOOTING TECHNIQUE

• Position yourself and your camera. If you're
  using a tripod, make sure it's stable and level
  (unless you have a reason for it to be tilted).
  If the tripod has a spirit level, check it. If
  you're going to be panning and/or tilting, make
  sure that you'll be comfortably positioned
  throughout the whole move. You don't want to
  start a pan, then realize you can't reach around
  far enough to get the end of it. If it's going to
  be difficult, you're better off finding the
  position which is most comfortable at the end of
  the move, so that you start in the more awkward
  position and become more comfortable as you
  complete the move. If the tripod head doesn't
  have a bowl (this includes most cheaper tripods),
  it's very important to check that the framing
  still looks level as you pan - it may be okay in
  one direction but become horribly slanted as you
  pan left and right.
• If you're not using a tripod, stabilize yourself
  and your camera as best you can. Keep your arms
  and elbows close to your body (you can use your
  arms as "braces" against your torso). Breathe
  steadily. For static shots, place your feet at
  shoulder width (if you're standing), or try
  bracing yourself against some solid object
  (furniture, walls, or anything).

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SHOOTING TECHNIQUE

• Frame your shot. Then do a quick mental check
  white balance focus iris framing (vertical and
  horizontal lines, background, etc.).
• Think about your audio. Audio is just as
  important as vision, so don't forget about it.
• Press "record". Once you're recording, make sure
  that you are actually recording. There's no worse
  frustration than realizing that you were
  accidentally recording all the time you were
  setting the shot up, then stopped recording when
  you thought you were starting.Many cameras have
  a tape "roll-in time", which means that there is
  a delay between the time you press record and
  when the camera begins recording. Do some tests
  and find out what your camera's roll-in time is,
  so you can then compensate for it.

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SHOOTING TECHNIQUE

• Many cameras have a tape "roll-in time", which
  means that there is a delay between the time you
  press record and when the camera begins
  recording. Do some tests and find out what your
  camera's roll-in time is, so you can then
  compensate for it.
• Keep checking the status displays in the
  viewfinder. Learn what all the indicators mean
  they can give you valuable information.
• Use both eyes. A valuable skill is the ability to
  use one eye to look through the viewfinder, and
  the other eye to watch your surroundings. It
  takes a while to get used to it, but it means
  that you can walk around while shooting without
  tripping over, as well as keeping an eye out for
  where the action is happening. It's also easier
  on your eyes during long shoots.

31
SHOOTING TECHNIQUE

• Learn to walk backwards. Have someone place
  their hand in the middle of your back and guide
  you. These shots can look great.
• You'll often see television presenters walking
  and talking, as the camera operator walks
  backwards shooting them.
• Keep thinking "Framing...Audio..." As long as
  you're recording, think about how the frame
  composition is changing, and what's happening to
  the sound.
• Press "record stop" before moving. Just as in
  still photography, you should wait until one
  second after you've finished recording (or taken
  the photo) before you move. Too many home videos
  end every shot with a jerky movement as the
  operator hits the stop button.

32
SHOOTING TECHNIQUE

• Use the "date/time stamp" feature sparingly. It's
  unnecessary to have the time and date displayed
  throughout your video, and it looks cheap. If you
  must have it there, bring it up for a few
  seconds, then get rid of it.
• Modern digital cameras have the ability to show
  or hide this display at any time after recording.
• Be prepared to experiment. Think about some of
  the things you'd like to try doing, then try them
  at a time that doesn't matter (i.e. don't
  experiment while shooting a wedding). Most new
  techniques take practice and experimentation to
  achieve success, and good camera work requires
  experience.
• If you want to be good, you'll have to invest
  some time.

33
SHOOTING TECHNIQUE

• Use the "date/time stamp" feature sparingly. It's
  unnecessary to have the time and date displayed
  throughout your video, and it looks cheap. If you
  must have it there, bring it up for a few
  seconds, then get rid of it.
• Modern digital cameras have the ability to show
  or hide this display at any time after recording.
• Be prepared to experiment. Think about some of
  the things you'd like to try doing, then try them
  at a time that doesn't matter (i.e. don't
  experiment while shooting a wedding). Most new
  techniques take practice and experimentation to
  achieve success, and good camera work requires
  experience.
• If you want to be good, you'll have to invest
  some time.

34
Videotape

• Types VHS, VHS-C, 8mm, MiniDV, DVD, Hard drive
• Be careful inserting the video tape!
  Miniaturized camcorders are somewhat delicate.
  You can break them by forcing a tape. If the
  tape does not slide in easily, make sure it is
  facing the correct direction.

35
Preparing the tape

• Once the tape is inside the camcorder, it must be
  prepared for use. If the tape is brand ne, roll
  it forward about 30 seconds. Do this by pressing
  the record button with the cap still covering the
  lens. This is done because the first few inches
  of tape will gradually stretch as the cassette is
  repeatedly rewound to its beginning, eventually
  ruining any material recorded there.

36
Preparing the tape

• If you have used a tape before, you must prepare
  it by rolling down to raw stock.
• Tape Preparation is very important because you
  never know who filmed before you and where they
  left the tape. You do not want to accidentally
  record over someone else's or your own footage
  and you dont want someone else to record over
  your footage.

37
Batteries

• Camcorders may be used with an A/C power adapter
  or a battery. If you are around a power outlet,
  use it and conserve your batteries for when you
  are not around a power outlet.
• Batteries are not indestructible and can be
  damaged by dropping them or leaving them in
  extreme temperatures.

38
Batteries

• Camcorders may be used with an A/C power adapter
  or a battery. If you are around a power outlet,
  use it and conserve your batteries for when you
  are not around a power outlet.
• Batteries are not indestructible and can be
  damaged by dropping them or leaving them in
  extreme temperatures.
• Never go out shooting without at least one fully
  charged battery. Batteries usually dont usually
  last as long as they are supposed to especially
  if they are older.

39
Tripod

• Although a skilled camera operator can shoot good
  quality footage by hand-holding, it is difficult
  to obtain steady images without the support of a
  tripod. Shaky pictures are the most obvious
  signs of amateurish production.
• Your hands are not as steady as you think they
  are. Because many students smoke and drinking
  high level caffeine drinks their hands shake more
  than they should and it is more evident on film.

40
Tripod

• There are two major parts to a tripod, the tripod
  itself and the tripod boot.
• The tripod boot screws into the bottom of the
  camera. Make sure you do not screw it in too
  tightly, or you may crack the bottom of the
  camera.
• In order to insert the tripod boot into the
  camera, make sure to move the quick release
  mechanism so that the boot fits in easily and
  then move the quick release again to secure.

41
Using the Tripod

• Make sure the tripod head is level by adjusting
  the lengths of the legs or using the ball head.
• If the tripod has a center column, try not to use
  it, because it makes the tripod less stable.
• Point one leg at the subject to be video taped.
  Doing this will let you stand close behind the
  camera, in the space between the other two legs.
• When you pan the camera (pivot it from side to
  side), stand facing the center of the move. To
  make the shot, twist your upper body to frame the
  start of the shot, the opposite way until you
  frame the end of the shot.

42
Hand-Holding the Camera

• You cant always use a tripod, but you should
  always use a tripod if you can.
• If you cant use a tripod, never use the flip out
  screen. Instead, use the eye piece and both
  hands. This helps to steady your shot.
• Prop yourself up
• Hold your breath
• Dont walk while shooting if you can avoid it.

43
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• What is "Audio"?
• Audio means "of sound" or "of the reproduction of
  sound". Specifically, it refers to the range of
  frequencies detectable by the human ear
  approximately 20Hz to 20kHz. It's not a bad idea
  to memorize those numbers 20Hz is the
  lowest-pitched (bassiest) sound we can hear,
  20kHz is the highest pitch we can hear.
• Audio work involves the production, recording,
  manipulation and reproduction of sound waves. To
  understand audio you must have a grasp of two
  things
• Sound Waves What they are, how they are produced
  and how we hear them.
• Sound Equipment What the different components
  are, what they do, how to choose the correct
  equipment and use it properly.
• Fortunately it's not particularly difficult.
  Audio theory is simpler than video theory and
  once you understand the basic path from the sound
  source through the sound equipment to the ear, it
  all starts to make sense.
• Technical note In physics, sound is a form of
  energy known as acoustical energy.

44
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• The Field of Audio Work
• The field of audio is vast, with many areas of
  specialty. Hobbyists use audio for all sorts of
  things, and audio professionals can be found in a
  huge range of vocations. Some common areas of
  audio work include
• Studio Sound Engineer Radio technician
• Live Sound Engineer Film/Television Sound
  Recordist
• Musician Audio Editor
• Music Producer Post-Production Audio Creator
  
• DJ Field Sound Engineer

45
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• In addition, many other professions require a
  level of audio proficiency. For example, video
  camera operators should know enough about audio
  to be able to record good quality sound with
  their pictures.
• Speaking of video-making, it's important to
  recognize the importance of audio in film and
  video. A common mistake amongst amateurs is to
  concentrate only on the vision and assume that as
  long as the microphone is working the audio will
  be fine. However, satisfactory audio requires
  skill and effort. Sound is critical to the flow
  of the program indeed in many situations high
  quality sound is more important than high quality
  video.
• Most jobs in audio production require some sort
  of specialist skill set, whether it be micing up
  a drum kit or creating synthetic sound effects.
  Before you get too carried away with learning
  specific tasks, you should make sure you have a
  general grounding in the principles of sound.
  Once you have done this homework you will be well
  placed to begin specializing.
• The first thing to tackle is basic sound wave
  theory...

46
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• Sound waves can also be shown in a standard x vs
  y graph, as shown here. This allows us to
  visualize and work with waves from a mathematical
  point of view. The resulting curves are known as
  the "waveform" (i.e. the form of the wave.)
• The wave shown here represents a constant tone at
  a set frequency. You will have heard this noise
  being used as a test or identification signal.
  This "test tone" creates a nice smooth wave which
  is ideal for technical purposes. Other sounds
  create far more erratic waves.
• Click here to listen to this tone (22KB wav file)
• Note that a waveform graph is two-dimensional but
  in the real world sound waves are
  three-dimensional. The graph indicates a wave
  traveling along a path from left to right, but
  real sound waves travel in an expanding sphere
  from the source. However the 2-dimensional model
  works fairly well when thinking about how sound
  travels from one place to another.

47
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• The next thing to consider is what the graph
  represents that is, what it means when the wave
  hits a high or low point. The following
  explanation is a simplified way of looking at how
  sound waves work and how they are represented as
  a waveform. Don't take it too literally treat
  it as a useful way to visualize what's going on.
• In an electronic signal, high values represent
  high positive voltage. When this signal is
  converted to a sound wave, you can think of high
  values as representing areas of increased air
  pressure. When the waveform hits a high point,
  this corresponds to molecules of air being packed
  together densely. When the wave hits a low point
  the air molecules are spread more thinly.
• In the diagram below, the black dots represent
  air molecules. As the loudspeaker vibrates, it
  causes the surrounding molecules to vibrate in a
  particular pattern represented by the waveform.
  The vibrating air then causes the listener's
  eardrum to vibrate in the same pattern. Voilà
  Sound!
• Note that air molecules do not actually travel
  from the loudspeaker to the ear (that would be
  wind). Each individual molecule only moves a
  small distance as it vibrates, but it causes the
  adjacent molecules to vibrate in a rippling
  effect all the way to the ear.
• Now here's the thing All audio work is about
  manipulating sound waves. The end result of your
  work is this series of high and low pressure
  zones. That's why it's so important to understand
  how they work - they are the "material" of your
  art.

48
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• How Sound Waves Interact with Each Other
• When different waves collide (e.g. sound from
  different sources) they interfere with each
  other. This is called, unsurprisingly, wave
  interference.
• Phasing
• The following table illustrates how sound waves
  (or any other waves) interfere with each other
  depending on their phase relationship
• Sound waves which are exactly in phase add
  together to produce a stronger wave.
• Sound waves which are exactly inverted, or 180
  degrees out of phase, cancel each other out and
  produce silence. This is how many
  noise-cancellation devices work.
• Sound waves which have varying phase
  relationships produce differing sound effects.

49
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• Sound Systems
• Working with audio means working with sound
  systems. Naturally, the range of systems
  available for different applications is enormous.
  However, all electronic audio systems are based
  around one very simple concept To take sound
  waves, convert them into an electric current and
  manipulate them as desired, then convert them
  back into sound waves.
• A very simple sound system is shown in the
  diagram below. It is made up of two types of
  component
• Transducer - A device which converts energy from
  one form into another. The two types of
  transducers we will deal with are microphones
  (which convert acoustical energy into electrical
  energy) and speakers (which convert electrical
  energy into acoustical energy).
• Amplifier - A device which takes a signal and
  increases it's power (i.e. it increases the
  amplitude).
• The process begins with a sound source (such as a
  human voice), which creates waves of sound
  (acoustical energy).
• These waves are detected by a transducer
  (microphone), which converts them to electrical
  energy.
• The electrical signal from the microphone is very
  weak, and must be fed to an amplifier before
  anything serious can be done with it.
• The loudspeaker converts the electrical signal
  back into sound waves, which are heard by human
  ears.

50
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• The next diagram shows a slightly more elaborate
  system, which includes
• Signal processors - devices and software which
  allow the manipulation of the signal in various
  ways. The most common processors are tonal
  adjusters such as bass and treble controls.
• Record and playback section - devices which
  convert a signal to a storage format for later
  reproduction. Recorders are available in many
  different forms, including magnetic tape, optical
  CD, computer hard drive, etc.
• The audio signal from the transducer (microphone)
  is passed through one or more processing units,
  which prepare it for recording (or directly for
  amplification).
• The signal is fed to a recording device for
  storage.
• The stored signal is played back and fed to more
  processors.
• The signal is amplified and fed to a loudspeaker.
  

51
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• The 3-part audio model
• One simple way of visualizing any audio system is
  by dividing it up into three sections the
  source(s), processor(s) and output(s).
• The source is where the electronic audio signal
  is generated. This could be a "live" source such
  as a microphone or electric musical instrument,
  or a "playback" source such as a tape deck, CD,
  etc.
• The processing section is where the signal is
  manipulated. For our purposes, we will include
  the amplifiers in this section.
• The output section is where the signal is
  converted into sound waves (by loudspeakers), so
  that it can be heard by humans.
• This portable stereo is a good example of a
  simple system.

52
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIO

• Sources There are three sources - two tape
  machines and one radio aerial (technically the
  radio source is actually at the radio station).
• Processors Includes a graphic equalizer,
  left/right stereo balance, and amplifiers.
• Outputs There are two speaker cabinets (one at
  each end), each containing two speakers. Note
  that there are also two alternative outputs A
  headphone socket (which drives the small speakers
  inside a headphone set) and twin "line out"
  sockets (which supply a feed for an external
  audio system).
• Now imagine a multi-kilowatt sound system used
  for stadium concerts. Although this is a complex
  system, at it's heart are the same three
  sections Sources (microphones, instruments,
  etc), processors and speakers.
• Whatever the scale of the project, the same
  underlying principles of sound reproduction
  apply.

53
CONNECTIONS

• This section explains the different types of
  audio cable and connectors.
• Audio Cables
• There are two main types of audio cable we will
  look at Single core / shielded (unbalanced) and
  One pair / shielded (balanced).
• Single Core / Shielded Cable
• In a single core / shielded cable, the single
  core is used for the ve, or 'hot', and the
  shield is used for the -ve, or 'cold'.This type
  of cable is used for unbalanced audio signals.
• Single core / shielded cable
• One Pair / Shielded Cable
• A one pair / shielded cable has one core as the
  ve, and the other core is -ve. The shield is
  earthed.This type of cable is used for balanced
  audio signals.

54
AUDIO CONNECTORS

• There are a variety of different audio connectors
  available. The most common types are 3-pin XLR,
  RCA, and 6.5mm jacks (also known as ¼" jacks).
• 3-pin XLR
• 3-pin XLR connectors are mainly used for balanced
  audio signals. Using a balanced signal reduces
  the risk of inference.
• Pin 1 is the earth (or shield)
• Pin 2 is the ve (or 'hot')
• Pin 3 is the -ve (or 'cold).
• There are a number of different XLR's - 3-pin,
  4-pin, 5-pin etc

3-pin XLR Male
3-pin XLR Female
55
AUDIO CONNECTORS

• ¼" Jack (6.5mm Jack)
• There are two types of 6.5mm Jacks Mono and
  stereo. The mono jack has a tip and a sleeve, the
  stereo jack has ring, a tip and a sleeve.
• On the mono jack the tip is the ve, and the
  sleeve is the -ve or shield.
• On a stereo jack being used for a balanced
  signal, the tip is the ve, the ring is the -ve,
  and the sleeve is the shield.
• On a stereo jack being used for a stereo signal
  (left and right), the tip is the left, the ring
  is the right, and the sleeve is the shield.
• Jacks also come in various sizes - 6.5mm (¼"),
  3.5mm, 2.5mm. The wiring for all of them is the
  same.

1/4" Mono Jack
1/4" Stereo Jack
56
AUDIO CONNECTORS

• RCA
• RCAs are used a lot for home stereos, videos,
  DVDs etc.
• The RCA can carry either audio or video. It is
  wired the same way as a mono jack The center pin
  is the ve, and the outer ring is the -ve or
  shield.

RCA Male
57
HOW TO USE MICROPHONES

• This section aims to provide you with the skills
  to choose the correct microphone and use it
  properly to obtain the best possible sound. It is
  suitable for people interested in any type of
  audio or video work.
• The microphone (mic) is a ubiquitous piece of
  equipment. Found in everything from telephones to
  computers to recording studios, microphones are
  part of our daily life.
• Few people think about the microphone in their
  telephone when they use it. Some people think
  about the microphone on their video camera when
  they use it. All professionals pay careful
  attention to their microphones whenever they use
  them.
• Don't make the mistake that many amateurs make
  and use whatever mic is at hand (e.g. using a
  vocal mic for a bass drum). Also, don't make the
  mistake of assuming that using a microphone is
  easy. Microphone technique is a learned skill -
  plugging it in and pointing it isn't always
  enough.
• The microphone is perhaps the most critical part
  of the audio chain (assuming that all other
  components are at least acceptable quality). A
  good quality microphone will provide you with the
  basis for excellent audio, whereas a poor quality
  microphone will mean poor quality audio - no
  matter how good the rest of the system is.

58
HOW TO USE MICROPHONES

• Choosing the Right Microphone
• As we discussed in the previous section, there
  are many different types of microphone in common
  use. The differences are usually described in two
  ways The technology they use (e.g. dynamic,
  condenser, etc) and their directionality (e.g.
  omnidirectional, cardioid, etc). In addition,
  microphones have a number of other
  characteristics which need to be taken into
  account.
• When choosing a microphone, the first thing you
  will need to know is what characteristics you
  need. After that, you can worry about things like
  size, brand, cost, etc

59
HOW TO USE MICROPHONES

• Things to Consider
• Work through each of these characteristics and
  determine your needs.
• Directionality
• Decide which type of directional pattern best
  fits your needs. Remember that it's usually
  better to use a less directional mic in a
  position close to the sound source, than to be
  further away using a hypercardioid. For more
  information see microphone directional
  characteristics.
• Frequency Response
• Make sure the mic's frequency response is
  appropriate for the intended use. As a rule of
  thumb flat response patterns are best, but in
  many cases a tailored response will be even
  better. For more information see microphone
  frequency response.
• Impedance
• The rule of thumb is Low impedance is better
  than high impedance. For more information see
  microphone impedance.

60
HOW TO USE MICROPHONES

• Handling Noise
• Remember that the diaphragm works by converting
  vibrations from sound waves into an electrical
  signal. Unless the microphone has some sort of
  protection system, the diaphragm can't tell the
  difference between a desirable sound wave
  vibration and any other sort of vibration (such
  as a person tapping the microphone casing). Any
  sort of vibration at all will become part of the
  generated audio signal.
• If your mic is likely to be subjected to any sort
  of handling noise or vibration, you will need a
  mic which will help prevent this noise from being
  picked up. High quality hand-held mics usually
  attempt to isolate the diaphragm from vibrations
  using foam padding, suspension, or some other
  method. Low quality mics tend to transfer
  vibrations from the casing right into the
  diaphragm, resulting in a terrible noise.
• Note that lavaliere mics don't usually have
  protection from handling noise, simply because
  they are too small to incorporate any padding. It
  is therefore important to make sure they won't be
  moved or bumped.

61
HOW TO USE MICROPHONES

• Purchasing a Microphone
• If you can afford it, it makes sense to buy a
  range of microphones and use the most appropriate
  one for each job. If your budget is more limited,
  think about all the different things you need to
  use the mic for and try to find something which
  will do a reasonable job of as many of them as
  possible.
• For vocalists a simple cardioid dynamic mic (such
  as the Sure SM58) is a good starting point.
• For video makers, a useful option is a condenser
  mic with selectable directionality, so you can
  change between cardioid and hypercardioid. If you
  can afford three mics, consider a hand-held
  dynamic, a shotgun condenser, and a lapel mic.

62
HOW TO USE MICROPHONES

• Comparisons
• In the end, sound is quite subjective. You really
  want a mic which will provide the sound you like.
  A good idea is to set up a controlled test.
  Record the same sounds using different mics,
  keeping all other factors constant.
• Make sure you are comparing apples with apples
  for example, don't compare a hand-held cardioid
  and a shotgun in the same position. If you do
  want to compare these mics, make sure each is
  placed in its optimum position.

63
HOW TO POSITION A MICROPHONE

• Distance
• The golden rule of microphone placement is get
  the distance right. In general, place the
  microphone as close as practical to the sound
  source without getting so close that you
  introduce unwanted effects (see below).
• The aim is to achieve a good balance between the
  subject sound and the ambient noise. In most
  cases you want the subject sound to be the clear
  focus, filled out with a moderate or low level of
  ambient noise. The desired balance will vary
  depending on the situation and the required
  effect. For example, interviews usually work best
  with very low ambient noise. However if you want
  to point out to your audience that the
  surroundings are very noisy you could hold the
  mic slightly further away from the subject.
• It is possible to get too close. Some examples
• If a vocal mic is to close to the speaker's
  mouth, the audio may be unnaturally bassy (boomy,
  excessive low frequencies). You are also likely
  to experience popping and other unpleasant
  noises.
• A microphone too close to a very loud sound
  source is likely to cause distortion.
• Placing a mic too close to moving parts or other
  obstacles may be dangerous. For example, be
  careful when micing drums that the drummer isn't
  going to hit the mic.

64
HOW TO POSITION A MICROPHONE

• Phase Problems
• When using more than one microphone you need to
  be wary of phasing, or cancellation. Due to the
  way sound waves interfere with each other,
  problems can occur when the same sound source is
  picked up from different mics placed at slightly
  different distances. A common example is an
  interview situation in which two people each have
  a hand-held mic - when one person talks they are
  picked up by both mics and the resulting
  interference creates a phasing effect.

65
HOW TO POSITION A MICROPHONE

• Think Laterally
• You don't always have to conform to standard ways
  of doing things. As long as you're not placing a
  microphone in danger there's no reason not to use
  them in unusual positions. For example, lavaliere
  mics can be very versatile due to their small
  size - they can be placed in positions which
  would be unrealistic for larger mics.
• Examples

Guitar amps are miced very closely. This helps keep the sound isolated from the rest of the stage noise. Theoretically the amp will not create any level burst strong enough to distort the microphone. Snare drum mics need to be close to the skin without getting in the way of the drummer or risking damage.
66
MICROPHONE STANDS, MOUNTS CLAMPS

• An important consideration is the way the
  microphone is held or mounted. A poorly mounted
  mic can lead to all sorts of problems, whereas a
  well-mounted mic can lift the audio quality
  significantly. Things to consider when mounting a
  mic include
• The mic obviously needs to be correctly
  positioned, facing the required direction. You
  should be able to reposition the mic if
  necessary.
• The mic must be safe, i.e. Won't fall over, get
  knocked, get wet, etc.
• The mic must be shielded from unwanted noise such
  as handling noise, vibrations, wind, etc.
• Cables must be secure and safe. In particular,
  make sure no one can trip over them.
• There are many ways to mount microphones. Let's
  look at the most common methods...

67
MICROPHONE STANDS, MOUNTS CLAMPS

• Microphone Stands
• The most obvious mount is the microphone stand.
  There are three main variations The straight
  vertical stand, the boom stand and the small
  table-top stand.
• Boom stands are very useful and versatile. If you
  are considering buying a general-purpose stand, a
  boom stand is the logical choice.
• Some things to watch out for when setting up a
  microphone stand
• Always position the boom to extend directly above
  one of the stand legs. This prevents the stand
  from tipping over.
• Don't wrap the lead a hundred times around the
  stand. This serves no purpose except make your
  life difficult and possibly increase twisting
  pressure on the lead. One turn around the
  vertical part of the stand and another turn
  around the boom is all you need.
• Never stand on the legs. You will wreck them.
• Never over-tighten clamps. Do them up until they
  are firm - no more. Don't try to adjust clamps
  while they are tightened - undo them first.
• Note Boom arms are controlled by sound operators.

Boom Stand
Tabletop Stand
68
MICROPHONE STANDS, MOUNTS CLAMPS

• Clamps
• Instead of using a dedicated mic stand, you can
  use a specialized clamp to piggyback on another
  stand (or any other object).
• Advantages
• Less floor space is used, more mics can be
  squeezed into the same area.
• Less equipment to carry (clamps are smaller and
  lighter than stands).
• Can sometimes be useful reaching difficult
  positions.
• Disadvantages
• Can sometimes be tricky to set up and more
  difficult to get exactly the right positioning.
  Also more difficult to move or adjust once set
  up.
• More likelihood of unwanted vibration noise
  creeping into the mix.
• Clamps are often used in musical situations where
  there are many stands and many microphones. The
  classic example is the drum kit which is
  surrounded by cymbal stands - clamps are well
  suited to this application.

69
MICROPHONE STANDS, MOUNTS CLAMPS

• Clothing Clip
• Lavaliere (lapel or lap) mics are usually
  attached to the subject's clothing using a
  specialized clip. Obviously the preferred
  position is on the lapel or thereabouts. This
  provides consistent close-range sound pickup and
  is ideal for interview situations in which each
  participant has their own mic. It also means the
  subject doesn't have to worry about mic
  technique.
• If you have time, discreetly hide the cable in
  the clothing. If there is nowhere to place the
  mic on the subject's chest, try the collar.

70
MICROPHONE STANDS, MOUNTS CLAMPS

• Headset
• A headset with its own mic works well in
  situations such as
• When the person talking needs to listen as well
  as speak.
• When the person talking must be able to move
  around with their hands free.
• When there is a lot of background noise, likely
  to be distracting the subject.
• Headsets are ideal for stage performers, as well
  as sports commentators, radio announcers, etc.
  Like lav mics, they provide very consistent
  audio.
• Shock Absorption
• In order to minimize unwanted noise caused by
  vibration of the stand or mount, a shock
  absorption system may be used. This isolates the
  mic from the vibrations, usually with foam
  padding or elastic suspension.

71
MICROPHONE STANDS, MOUNTS CLAMPS
Boom Microphone The boom microphone is very
popular in film and television production. A
directional mic is mounted on a boom arm and
positioned just out of camera frame, as shown on
the right. The cable is wrapped once or twice
around the boom arm. Booms have the advantage of
freeing up subjects from having to worry about
microphones. They can move freely without
disturbing the sound, and concerns about
microphone technique are eliminated. You can
make a simple boom from just about anything which
is the right shape. A microphone stand with