Night 2

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Night 2
Session III Motivation and Behavior and Theories
of Motivation
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Some Theories Of Motivation

• Need (or Content) Theories
• Maslows Need Hierarchy
• Alderfers ERG Theory
• McClellands Manifest Needs
• Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
• Process Theories
• Learning Theory
• Goal Setting Theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory

Next
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Learning Theories

• Learning is any relatively permanent change in
  behavior produced by experience.
• Three types of learning
• classical conditioning
• operant conditioning
• social learning

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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
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Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired
Behaviors
Back
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Functions of Goals

• Goals let employees know what they are expected
  to do.
• Goals relieve boredom.
• Reaching goals and getting positive feedback
  leads to increased liking for the task and
  satisfaction with job performance.
• Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers,
  supervisors, and others.
• Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased
  self-confidence, pride in achievement, and
  willingness to accept future challenges.

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Important Goal Characteristics
SPECIFIC GOALS
DIFFICULT GOALS
FEEDBACK ON PROGRESS
COMPETITION
PARTICIPATION IN GOAL SETTING
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Management by Objectives

• Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational
  technique in which the manager and employee work
  together to set employee goals.
• MBO combines many key goal setting principles,
  including setting of specific goals,
  participation in goal setting, and feedback on
  performance.
• MBO may be difficult and time consuming to
  implement, and may encourage focus on
  easily-quantifiable goals.
• 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in
  productivity gains.

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The Bottom Line Goal Setting Theory
Use Employee Participation to Set Difficult
and Specific Goals
Back
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Why Be Fair? General Reasons

• When people experience a situation they feel is
  not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of
  tension.
• Some people try to be fair because they think
  others will reward them for being fair.
• Behaving fairly may bolster a persons
  self-esteem.
• Most people find it comforting to believe that
  life is fair.

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Why Be Fair? Employers Reasons

• To conform to business norms.
• To attract superior workers to their company and
  weed out inferior workers.
• To motivate employees to produce.
• To develop trust.

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Equity Theory Equation

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Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)

• Raise actual outcomes
• Lower inputs
• Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes
• Perceptually distort comparison others inputs
  and/or outcomes
• Leave the situation
• Act to change the comparison others inputs
  and/or outcomes
• Change the comparison other

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The Bottom Line Equity Theory
Assess Employee Perceptions of Equity in Their
Work Situations
Back
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The Components of ExpectancyTheory
Effort to Perform at a Certain Level
First-Order Outcome (e.g., Performance)
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The Linkage of Effort to a First-Order Outcome
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Determinants of Effort to Perform
Effort to Perform
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Implications of Expectancy Theory

• Recognize that three conditions are necessary for
  motivation to perform.
• Assess perceptions of each of these conditions.
• Identify gaps between employee and management
  perceptions.
• Make sure you are giving employees what they
  want.
• Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy
  perceptions.
• Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality
  perceptions.
• If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work
  backward.

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The Bottom Line Expectancy Theory
Identify Desired Level of Employee Motivation
Back
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What is Leadership?
Leadership is the ability to influence others
toward the achievement of goals
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The Changing Look of Leadership
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Emerging Perspectives on Leadership

• While early leadership approaches emphasized the
  traits of successful leaders -- who they are --
  newer approaches ask how successful leaders
  behave -- what they do.
• Early approaches to leadership tended to take a
  universalistic perspective, asking, What works?
  Newer approaches, recognizing that
  characteristics of the situation, such as
  followers needs and skills and various aspects
  of the task must be considered, ask, What works
  when?
• Early approaches considered primarily one-way
  influence, how a leader influences followers.
  Newer approaches recognize that the influence
  process is reciprocal -- just as leaders are
  influencing followers, followers are influencing
  leaders.

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Emerging Perspectives on Leadership (Cont)

• While early approaches tended to assume that
  leaders treat their various followers in similar
  ways, more recent approaches recognize that
  leaders may -- for good or bad reasons -- treat
  different followers differently.
• While leadership approaches initially focused on
  the relationship of leaders to their
  subordinates, modern views are more inclusive
  the others whom leaders influence may sometimes
  be team members or even hierarchical superiors.
• Most early approaches to leadership tended to
  consider how a leader might influence others
  through a series of transactions. Newer
  approaches look more broadly at how leaders take
  actions to transform followers and organizations.

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Leader Traits

• The earliest approach to the study of leadership
  was to try to identify characteristics, or
  traits, of successful leaders.
• Literally thousands of studies have now explored
  leadership traits.
• Of the traits, activity, intelligence, knowledge,
  dominance, and self-confidence are most often
  found to be linked to leader success.
• Unfortunately, most reviews of studies relating
  to leadership traits have concluded that the
  trait approach has not been fruitful.
• Very few traits show up consistently across
  studies.
• Also, since traits are relatively stable, it is
  unlikely that leaders can develop them through
  training.
• So, attention has shifted from what successful
  leaders are to what they do.

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Autocratic and Democratic Styles
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Autocratic and Democratic Styles

• Autocratic leaders make decisions themselves,
  without inputs from subordinates. Democratic
  leaders let subordinates participate in decision
  making.
• Democratic style is consistently linked to higher
  levels of subordinate satisfaction.
• Democratic style is usually positively, but
  weakly, related to productivity.
• This weak link of democratic style to performance
  may be because many factors determine whether a
  democratic style is appropriate, including the
  nature of the tasks and the characteristics of
  subordinates.

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Autocratic and Democratic Styles(Continued)

• When tasks are simple and repetitive,
  participation has little effect, because there
  is little to participate about.
• When subordinates are intelligent and desire
  independence, participation is especially
  important.
• Participation is empowering and satisfying, and
  it generates enthusiasm for the decisions that
  are reached.
• Participation takes time, and people sometimes
  dont like to participate, especially if they
  care little about the decision.
• Since leaders may give more productive followers
  more responsibility, the relationship between
  democratic style and performance could be due to
  the impact of performance on style rather than
  vice versa.

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Consideration and Initiating Structure

• Effective leaders show concern for both the task
  and the people they leader. Without concern for
  task, the job wont get done. Without concern
  for people, satisfaction, motivation, and team
  spirit will suffer and performance will
  ultimately suffer.
• Two sets of leader behaviors -- consideration and
  initiating structure -- address these concerns.
• Consideration and initiating structure are not
  conflicting sets of behaviors. Skillful leaders
  should be able to exhibit both sets of behaviors,
  and they should use those behaviors as needed.

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Consideration and Initiating Structure(Continued)

• Consideration is behavior that shows friendship,
  mutual trust, respect, and warmth. Considerate
  leaders are friendly and approachable, look out
  for the personal welfare of team members, back up
  the members in their actions, and find time to
  listen to them.
• Initiating structure is behavior that helps
  clarify the task and get the job done.
  Initiating leaders provide definite standards of
  performance, set goals, organize work, emphasize
  meeting deadlines, and coordinate the work of
  team members.

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Sample Items To Measure Considerationand
Initiating Structure

• Consideration
• Treats all work unit members as his or her equal
• Is friendly and approachable
• Does little things to make work pleasant
• Puts suggestions made by the work unit into
  operation
• Looks out for personal welfare of work unit
  members

• Initiating Structure
• Lets work unit members know what is expected of
  them
• Schedules the work to be done
• Encourages the use of uniform procedures
• Assigns work unit members to particular tasks
• Makes his or her attitudes clear to the group

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Path-Goal Theory

• The theory is called path-goal because its major
  concern is how the leader influences the
  followers perceptions of their work goals,
  personal goals, and paths to goal attainment.
• The theory suggests that a leaders behavior is
  motivating or satisfying to the degree that the
  behavior increases follower goal attainment and
  clarifies the paths to these goals.

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Some Contingency Factors in the Path-Goal Theory

• Some task contingency variables
• degree of structure
• degree to which the task is intrinsically
  satisfying
• degree to which the task provides feedback
  concerning accomplishment
• Some follower contingency variables
• need for independence
• ability, experience, training
• professional orientation

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Elements of Path-Goal Theory

• Leader Behaviors
• Directive
• Supportive
• Participative
• Achievement-
• Oriented

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The Bottom LineApplying Path-Goal Theory
Assess the Situation
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Leader-Member Exchange Theory

• According to leader-member exchange theory,
  leaders establish a one-on-one relationship with
  each follower. These relationships vary in terms
  of the quality of the exchange.
• Some followers -- members of the in-group -- have
  a high-quality relationship with the leader,
  characterized by mutual trust, liking, and
  respect. They enjoy the confidence of the
  leader, are given interesting and challenging
  assignments, and in turn they work hard, are
  loyal, and support the leader.
• Other followers -- the out-group -- have a lower
  quality relationship with the leader. The leader
  tends to see them as lacking motivation or
  competence or loyalty, interacts with them less,
  and offers them fewer chances to demonstrate
  their capabilities.
• Out-group members may live down to the leaders
  expectations, carrying out the tasks defined in
  their formal job descriptions and facing no real
  expectations of loyalty, creativity, or high
  performance.

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.)

• Followers may sometimes find themselves as
  members of out-groups due less to their abilities
  and potential than to favoritism, stereotypes,
  and personal conflicts.
• In an ideal world there would be no in-groups and
  out-groups. In the real world, in-groups and
  out-groups are common and perhaps cannot be
  avoided.
• Leaders must do all they can to ensure that
  in-group membership is based on ability and
  motivation rather than favoritism and prejudice.
• They must also ensure that followers can move
  between the groups, having access to in-group
  membership when it is earned and falling from
  such status when it is no longer justified.
• The most recent focus of leader-member exchange
  theory is on the process of leadership making,
  which develops over time in three phases.

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Leader-Member Exchange Model
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The Bottom Line Applying theLeader-Member
Exchange Model
List the Employees in Your Work Unit
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Types of Leadership

• Transactional Leadership Leadership based on
  transactions or exchanges -- the promise, and
  provision, of rewards for good performance and
  threats or discipline for poor performance.
• Transformational Leadership Leadership which
  transforms followers and organizations by
• broadening and elevating the interests of
  employees
• generating awareness and acceptance of the
  purposes and missions of the group
• stirring employees to look beyond their own self
  interest for the good of the group

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Elements of Transformational Leadership
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
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Transformational Leader Behaviors

• Attributed charisma. Charisma is a Greek word
  meaning Divinely inspired gift. Leaders are
  seen as charismatic when they display a sense of
  power and confidence, remain calm during crisis
  situations, and provide reassurance that
  obstacles can be overcome.
• Idealized influence. Leaders display idealized
  influence when they talk about their important
  values and beliefs consider the moral and
  ethical consequences of their decisions display
  conviction in their ideals, beliefs, and values
  and model values in their actions.
• Intellectual stimulation. Intellectually
  stimulating leaders help followers recognize
  problems and find ways to solve them. They
  encourage followers to challenge the status quo.
  They champion change and foster creative deviance.

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Transformational Leader Behaviors(Continued)

• Inspirational leadership. Inspirational leaders
  give followers hope, energizing them to pursue a
  vision. They envision exciting new
  possibilities, talk optimistically about the
  future, express confidence that goals can be met,
  and articulate a compelling vision of the future.
• Individualized consideration. Transformational
  leaders show personal interest and concern in
  their individual followers, and they promote
  their followers self-development. They coach
  their followers, serve as their mentors, and
  focus them on developing their strengths.

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Skills Associated with Transformational Leadership
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
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The Language of Leadership

• Transformational leaders must be able to inspire
  communicate their vision, ideals and beliefs
  provide compelling reassurance and challenge
  followers to think in new ways.
• To do all this, transformational leaders must be
  masters of communication they must speak the
  language of leadership.
• Two aspects of the language of leadership --
  framing and rhetorical crafting -- are crucial.

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Reflections on Leadership

• Pay careful attention to your formal or informal
  leadership roles.
• Successful leaders draw on a variety of power
  bases. Referent power has the broadest range,
  and heavy reliance on coercive power can be
  dangerous. Control over resources, information,
  and the problem-solving process all serve to
  increase power.
• A leader must show concern for both task
  accomplishment and fulfillment of subordinate
  needs.
• The same style or behavior may not work in every
  situation. In deciding how to behave, consider
  the maturity and needs of your subordinates, the
  structure and other characteristics of the task,
  and the nature of the organization.

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Reflections on Leadership (Cont.)

• Leadership can be frustrating. Structured tasks,
  separation of superiors and subordinates,
  bureaucratic constraints, and other factors can
  sometimes handcuff the leader. Try to be aware
  of, and deal with, leadership substitutes and
  neutralizers.
• As a leader you should not accept situations as
  fixed. You may be able to change task structure,
  your power, relations with subordinates, and
  other dimensions.
• The models reviewed in this chapter show that
  leader sensitivity, critical thinking, and
  flexibility are crucial.
• Remember that vision and inspiration are
  important. Dont ignore transformational aspects
  of the leadership role.