Human Anatomy

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Human Anatomy
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Levels of Organization

• All organisms are made of cells.
• Most cells are organized into functional units
  called tissues.
•  
• The four basic tissues of the human body are
  epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous
  tissues.

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Levels of Organization

• Organs are groups of tissues that perform
  specialized jobs. Examples of organs are eyes
  and stomach
• A group of organs that work together to carry out
  a major life function is called an organ system.

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Levels of Organization

• CELLS ----gt TISSUE ----gt ORGAN ----gt
  ORGAN SYSTEM

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Skeletal System

• The skeletal system provides the
• following
• 1. support
• 2. place for muscle attachment
• 3. protection for vital organs
• 4. manufactures blood cells
• 5. stores calcium and phosphorus

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Skeletal System

• The skeletal system consists of the following
• axial skeleton skull and bones of the back and
  chest
• appendicular skeleton bones associated with the
  limbs.
•  

Help, Im falling apart
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Skeletal System

• The place where two bones meet is called a joint.
• There are five types of joints
• immovable skull
• ball and socket shoulder
• hinge elbow
• gliding wrist
• pivot neck

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Ball and Socket Joint
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Hinge Joint
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Saddle Joint
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Pivot Joint
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Muscular System

• Muscles are used for movement
• Muscles are either voluntary or involuntary
• Involuntary muscles not under conscious control
• Voluntary muscles are under conscious control

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Muscular System

• There are three types of muscles
• Smooth found in the walls of hollow organs like
  the stomach. (Involuntary)
• Skeletal found in the muscles that are attached
  to the bones. (Voluntary)
• Cardiac found only in the heart (Involuntary)

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Respiratory System

• REVIEW
• Formula for Cellular Respiration
• C6H12O6 6O2 -? 6CO2 6H2O energy (ATP)
• Reactants Products
• ( in mitochondria)

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Respiratory System

• The function of the respiratory system is to
  exchange gases between blood and the air.
• Oxygen is inhaled and passed into the blood from
  small air sacs found in the lungs. These sacs
  are called alveoli.

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Respiratory System

• Carbon dioxide is passed to the lungs by the
  blood. The CO2 is then diffused out of the blood
  into the alveoli.
•  
• Carbon dioxide is then forced out of the lungs
  when you exhale.

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Respiratory System

• The major organs of the respiratory system
  are
• nasal cavity aids in warming and filtering out
  the air that is inhaled.
• pharynx area at the back of the mouth
• larynx upper part of the wind pipe

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Respiratory System

• trachea windpipe it is lined with cilia that
  prevent foreign particles from reaching the
  lungs.
• bronchi branches of the trachea, leading into
  the lungs that are covered in cilia to prevent
  foreign particles from reaching the lungs
• lungs organs composed of alveoli, and the place
  where gas exchange with the blood occurs.

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Circulatory System

• The circulatory system has the following
  functions
•   1. pump blood through the blood vessels
• 2. carry oxygen from the lungs and nutrients
  to all the body cells.
• 3. carry hormones to their target tissues
• 4. take carbon dioxide back to the lungs
• 5. take other wastes to the excretory system

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Circulatory System

• The organs of the circulatory system are
• heart organ made of cardiac muscle, that pumps
  blood throughout the body.
• blood vessels structures used to carry blood
  throughout the body (veins, arteries, and
  capillaries)

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Circulatory System

• arteries elastic vessel that transports
  oxygenated blood away from the heart.
• (the pulmonary artery takes unoxygenated blood
  to the lungs.)
• veins large vessels that return unoxygenated
  blood from the tissues back to the heart.
• (the pulmonary vein take oxygenated blood from
  the lungs to the heart)
• capillaries smallest blood vessels with walls
  only one cell thick. Site where nutrients,
  oxygen,and carbon dioxide diffuse between blood
  and tissues.

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Pathway of Circulation Through Blood Vessels
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Label the Diagram
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In from Body
LUNGS
Out To lungs
In from Lungs
Out to Body
Blue deoxygenated Red oxygenated
Trace the Flow of Blood
BODY
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Flow of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs
Superior/ Inf. Vena Cava
Rt. Atrium
Rt. Ventricle
Pulmonary Artery
Lungs
Pulmonary Vein
Left Atrium
Left Ventricle
Aorta
Body
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Blood typing

• Determining blood type is necessary before a
  person can receive a blood transfusion because
  the red blood cells of incompatible blood types
  could clump together, causing death.
• Your immune system recognizes the red blood cells
  as belonging to you. If cells with a different
  surface molecule enter your body, your immune
  system will attack them.

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Blood typing
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Phenotype A (review)

• The lA allele is dominant to i, so inheriting
  either the lA i alleles or the lA lA alleles from
  both parents will give you type A blood

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Phenotype B (review)

• The lB allele is also dominant to I, so to have
  type B blood, you must inherit the lB allele
  from one parent and either another lB allele or
  the i allele from the other.

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Phenotype AB (review)

• The lA and lB alleles are codominant. This means
  that if you inherit the lA allele from one parent
  and the lB allele from the other, your red blood
  cells will produce both surface molecules and you
  will have type AB blood.

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Phenotype O (review)

• The i allele is recessive and produces no surface
  molecules. Therefore, if you are homozygous ii,
  your blood cells have no surface molecules and
  you have blood type O.

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Multiple alleles determining human blood types
Human Blood Types
Genotypes
Surface Molecules
Phenotypes
A
A
lA lA or lAli
B
B
lB lB or lBi
lA lB
A and B
AB
None
ii
O
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• Blood groups

of U.S. population
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Serum
Universal recipient
Universal donor
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Blood Type Antigens on RBC Antibodies in Plasma May Donate To May Receive From
A A Anti B A,AB A, O
B B Anti A B, AB B,O
AB A, B None AB All (A, B, O)
O None A, B All (A,B,AB) O
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Digestive System

• The function of the digestive system are
• 1. receiving nutrients (food)
• 2. breaking food down
• 3. absorbing food and nutrients
• 4. eliminating materials that are not absorbed
  or digested.

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Digestive System

• The digestive system includes the following
  organs
• mouth organ that receives and begins the
  breakdown of food
• tongue organ that helps in breaking down
  food

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Digestive System

• teeth organ that helps in breaking down food
• salivary gland gland that secretes saliva, an
  enzyme that breaks down food
• pharynx the back of the mouth
• esophagus muscular tube that moves food from
  the mouth to the stomach by smooth muscle
  contractions

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Upper Digestive System
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Digestive System

• stomach muscular digestive organ that secretes
  acids and enzymes
• liver gland that produces many chemicals needed
  for digestion that are delivered to the small
  intestine
• gallbladder bile-storing organ aids digestion

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Digestive System

• pancreas gland that produces digestive enzymes.
• small intestine narrow, muscular tube where
  digestion is completed connects stomach to
  large intestine.
• large intestine muscular tube into which
  indigestible material is passed to the rectum for
  elimination.

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Endocrine System

• This system controls all of the metabolic
  activities of the body.
• This system includes all of the glands that
  secrete hormones in the body.
• Made of many glands that release chemical
  products (hormones) into the bloodstream which
  target cells elsewhere
• Hormones chemical messages that affect target
  cells

Roller coaster thrills are due to hormones.
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Endocrine System

• hormones chemical secreted by a gland that
  affects another part of an organism hormones
  play a key role in regulating metabolism of
  digestion, growth, and reproduction.
• examples of hormones estrogen, testosterone,
  growth hormone
• gland fluid secreting cell or group of cells
  produce fluids such as hormones
• examples of glands pituitary, thyroid, adrenal,
  ovaries, pancreas, testes

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Types of Body Glands

• Exocrine release secretions through ducts
  directly to organs (ex sweat, tears, digestive
  juices)
• Endocrine release chemicals directly into the
  blood stream

Sweat gland and ducts
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Pituitary Gland

• Secretes 9 hormones that directly regulate body
  functions and controls other endocrine glands
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin
• Prolactin
• TSH
• FSH and LH (reproductive hormones)

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Thyroid Gland

• Regulates body metabolism
• Too much thyroxine hyperthyroidism (high
  metabolism, jittery, weight loss)
• Too little thyroxine hypothyroidism (lower
  metabolism and body temperature, weight gain)
• Lack of iodine goiter

Thyroid Hormone x12,000 by Dee Breeger
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Parathyroid Hormone

• Glands surrounding thyroid
• Helps to regulate calcium levels in blood

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Adrenal Glands
                                                                                     The adrenal gland makes several hormones. The inner zone (medulla) makes adrenaline. The outer zone (cortex) supplies cortisol as well as other hormones controlling salt balance (aldosterone) and sexual development

• Release hormones that help people prepare and
  deal with stress
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• Commonly called adrenaline

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Pancreas

• Regulates blood sugar (glucose) levels
• Insulin
• Glucagon
• Diabetes inability to regulate blood glucose,
  unable to produce or respond properly to insulin

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Reproductive Glands

• Gonads produces gametes and produces
  reproductive hormones
• Testosterone
• Estradiol (estrogen)

Testosterone
Estradiol
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Excretory System (Urinary System)

• The functions of the excretory system are
• 1. eliminate waste products of amino acid
  breakdown from the blood
• 2. maintain water balance
• 3. maintain salt balance in the blood
• 4. store and transport urine out of the body

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Excretory System (Urinary System)

• The major organs of the urinary system
•  kidney removes nitrogenous wastes from the
  blood controls the sodium level and pH of the
  blood.
• ureters tubes that transport urine from each
  kidney to the urinary bladder
• bladder bag made of smooth muscle that stores
  urine, (solution of wastes)
• urethra tube through which urine is eliminated
  from the body

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• 
  
• 
  Nephron

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Reproductive System

• The function of the reproductive systems is to
  produce gametes (n) through the process of
  meiosis.
•  

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Reproductive System

• The male reproductive system consists of the
  following organs
• scrotum sac that contains the testes maintains
  sperm at a lower temperature than body
  temperature.
• testes place where sperm production takes place

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Sperm cell diagram
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Reproductive System

• epididymis coiled tube within the scrotum in
  which the sperm complete their maturation.
• vas deferens a duct that transports sperm from
  the epididymis toward the ejaculatory ducts and
  the urethra.
• seminal vesicles glands
• that secrete a mucous-like
• fluid rich in sugar, that
• provides energy for the
• sperm cells. 
•  

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Reproductive System

• bulbourethral gland gland that secretes a fluid
  that helps the sperm survive in the acidic
  vagina.
• prostate gland gland that secretes a fluid
  that helps sperm move and survive.
• urethra tube that sperm travel through when
  ejaculated.
• penis organ that surrounds the urethra and
  transfers sperm cells into the female
  reproductive tract.

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Reproductive System

• The female reproductive system contains the
  following organs
• ovary female reproductive organ that produces
  eggs.
• oviduct (fallopian tube) tube that transports
  eggs from ovary to uterus
• uterus muscular organ in which young are
  developed and protected animals having litters
  usually have uterine horns

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Female Reproductive System

• Primary function produce ova and prepare the
  body to nourish a developing embryo
• Typically only one mature ova is produced per
  menstrual cycle.

Color modified SEM of egg
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Menstrual cycle

• Human females undergo monthly cycles where the
  uterine lining is prepared in the event of
  fertilization.
• The lining is shed or released if fertilization
  does not take place.
• There is little blood, mostly water and proteins,
  that line the uterine walls.

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Charting the Menstrual Cycle

• LH, FSH, Estrogen, Progesterone control the
  development of the egg and the building of the
  uterine lining.

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vagina the passage way that leads from the
uterus to the outside of the body
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Stages of Human Development

• One sperm cell must fertilize the egg within the
  Fallopian tubes (oviduct) within a few hours of
  ovulation.
• The fertilized egg undergoes mitosis, where it
  then travels to the uterus for implantation.

SEM of sperm fertilizing egg
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Sperm Cells on Ovum Surface
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Stages of Human Development

SEM of fertilized egg (2n) zygote
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Stages of HumanDevelopment
2 cells

• Blastocyst hollow ball that implants in uterus
  lining

4 cells
8 cells
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Fertilized egg development
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Stages of Human Development

• Gastrula in folding of ball, producing 3 germ
  layers

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Stages of Human Development

• Neurulation process of nervous system
  development
• Some mesoderm tissue ? notocord
• Parts of the notocord (neural groove) ? neural
  tube to hold spinal cord and nervous system

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Stages of Human Development

• Embryo up to eight weeks
• Placenta tissue
• attached to uterus where exchanges with mother
  takes place
• Umbilical cored
• attaches embryo to
• placenta
• Fetus after eight weeks, human characteristics
  develop

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Fetus Position within the Womb
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40 and 45 day human fetus
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Stages of Human Development
5 weeks
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Stages of Human Development
2 months
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Stages of Human Development
12 weeks
18 weeks
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Stages of Human Development
20 weeks
24 weeks
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Stages of Human Development
7 months
8 months
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Delivery and Birth
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Afterbirth (placenta umbilical cord)
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Nervous System

• The function of the nervous system is to act as
  the bodys control center and coordinate the
  bodys activities.
• The organs of the nervous system are brain
  the control center of the central nervous system

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Nervous System

• spinal cord a bundle of nerve cells that
  transmit neural impulses from the brain to the
  body and from the body to the brain.
• neuron the basic unit of the nervous system
  cells that conduct impulses throughout the
  nervous system.

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Neuron specialized nerve cell
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Brain

• Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, hypothalamus,
  thalamus

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Cerebrum voluntary actions

• Separated from left and right hemispheres with
  the corpus callosum
• Each hemisphere deals with the opposite side of
  the body.

4 major cerebrum lobes
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Cerebellum body coordination

• Located at the back of the brain
• Helps to maintain balance and graceful movements

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Teen Girl Squad by the Brothers Chap
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Brain stem involuntary actions

• Made up of the pons and medulla oblongata
• Controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,
  swallowing, etc.
• Conducts brain signals to the rest of the body

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Thalamus and hypothalamus

• Thalamus receives messages from body and
  transmits signals to the appropriate brain parts
• Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland (hormone
  production) and senses hunger, thirst, fatigue,
  anger, body temperature

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Peripheral nervous system

• Somatic regulates activities under conscious
  control (ex lift arm) and reflex arcs (rapid
  responses)

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Peripheral nervous system

• Autonomic controls involuntary actions (ex
  increased heart rate or blood flow
• The gastric antrum to the left is under autonomic
  control.

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Lymphatic System (Immune System)

• The lymphatic system is involved in fighting
  disease and tissue repair.
•  
• Organs of the lymphatic system are as follows
•   lymph water and dissolved substances that
  diffuse from the bloodstream

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Lymphatic System (Immune System)

• lymph nodes small mass of tissue that filters
  lymph
• lymphocyte type of white blood cell that
  defends the body against foreign substances

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Lymphatic System (Immune System)

• Innate Immune System
• 1. Skin the first line of defense
• 2. Secretions that destroy microbes mucus,
  sweat, tears, and saliva
• 3. Phagocytosis of microbes
• 4. Inflammation of body tissues redness,
  swelling, pain and heat

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Lymphatic System (Immune System)

• 5. Complement protein molecules attach to
  pathogens and help the body destroy the pathogen
  by damaging their plasma membranes and
  attracting an increased number of phagocytes.

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Lymphatic System (Immune System)

• Adaptive Immune System
• Immunity - Defense against a specific pathogen by
  building up a resistance to it is called
  immunity.
• antigen foreign substances that stimulate the
  production of antibodies in the blood.
• antibody protein in the blood produced in
  reaction to antigens

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Lymphatic System (Immune System)
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The Integumentary System

• Skin
• Epidermis
• Dermis
• Hair
• Nails

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The Skin

• Largest body organ
• Barrier against infection (first line of defense)
  and injury
• Regulates body temperature with sweating
• Removes waste products from body metabolism
  (salts)
• Provides UV protection
• Manufactures vitamin D

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The Epidermis

• Outer layer made of dead cells
• Inner layer made of living cells
• undergoes mitosis quickly to push older cells to
  the surface
• makes keratin protein which strengthens outer
  cells

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Melanocytes

• Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin, a
  dark brown pigment
• Helps protect skin against UV damage

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The Dermis

• Layer of skin beneath the epidermis
• Lots of collagen fibers, blood vessels, nerve
  endings, sensory receptors, smooth muscles, and
  hair follicles

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Sweat glands in the dermis layer
Sweat glands secrete water, salts, calcium, and
other metabolic waste.
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Sebaceous glands in the dermis

• Produce oily secretions (sebum) that keeps the
  keratin-rich epidermis supple and waterproof

Acne When sebaceous glands become infected or
blocked, a whitehead or blackhead forms.
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Skin Cancer

• When skin cells are overexposed to UV rays, they
  can overgrow (excessive mitosis) and become
  cancerous.
• Precautions sunglasses, sunscreen, hat, long
  sleeves, avoiding tanning (natural or artificial)

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Human Hair

• Grows from hair follicles, tube like pocket of
  epidermal cells that extend into the dermis
• Hair grows from the base.
• Sebum helps maintain hair condition.

Human hair SEM from Rice University
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Hair functions

• Head hair protects the body from UV exposure and
  for warm
• Nostril hairs, ear hairs, and eyebrows/eyelashes
  prevents dirt and particles from entering the
  body
• Body hairs helps with sensory perception

By the University of Wales Bioimaging Lab
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Seriously long ear hair
The Worlds Longest Ear Hair 10.2 cm B D Tyagi
of Bhopal (India) http//news.bbc.co.uk/.../
newsid_1805000/1805342.stm
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Nails

• Nails grow from the nail root, near the tips of
  fingers and toes.
• Average growth rate 3 mm/month
• Evolutionary function protection

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Nails