Backdrops:

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scale them up! - Can be Copy-Pasted out of
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Elements Page
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The scope of linguistics
A ??????????????!?? ?????? B ???
????????!
Syntax
the study of meaning in the context of language
use
Pragmatics
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Chapter six

• Pragmatics

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6.1 Some basic notions

• ? Pragmatics it is the study of how speakers of
  a language use sentences to effect successful
  communication.
• It is a kind of meaning study.
• ? Pragmatics mainly derives from the study of
  semantics, but its focus is on speakers meaning,
  utterance meaning or contextual meaning.
• Two major traditions
• ? Pragmatics focuses on such topics as deixis,
  speech acts, indirect language, principle of
  conversation, politeness, cross-cultural
  communication and presupposition.

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Pragmatics vs. Semantics

• Semantics studies the meaning of language, which
  is considered as something intrinsic and
  inherent, i.e., meaning is studied in isolation
  from language use.
• I'm on T-shirt today.
• Pragmatics is mainly concerned with the study
  of meaning in the context where language is
  actually used.
• is whether in the study of meaning the context
  of use is considered.

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Grammatical analysis vs. pragmatic analysis
rules
principles
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Context

• (1) Context refers to the knowledge shared by
  the speaker and the hearer.
• (2) Context determines the speakers use of
  language and also the hearers interpretation of
  what is said to him or her.
• e.g. It is cold here.
• This utterance might be said by the speaker
  to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave
  the place, or to put on more clothes, or to
  apologize for the poor condition of a certain
  place.

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6.2 Speech Act Theory

• John Austin
• What do we do when using language?
• Either to state or to describe
• Constatives (???) vs. performatives (???)

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• There are two types of sentences
• Constatives (???) vs. performatives(???)
• Constatives statements that either state or
  describe and can be verified eg
• I go to the park every Sunday.
• I teach English.

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• Performatives
• sentences that did not state a fact or
  describe sth. sentences uttered with the
  purpose of doing something. The speaker is
  actually doing sth.
• They cannot be said to be true or false.

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• I do.
• I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.
• I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.
• I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.
• I promise to finish it in time.
• I apologize.
• I declare the meeting open.
• I warn you that the bull will charge.

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3. Illocutionary Act Theory(??????)

• Later on, Austin gave up his initial distinction
  
• between constatives and performatives and set up
  another
• model. According to his new model, a speaker my
  be
• performing three acts simultaneously when
  speaking
• locutionary act (????/????), illocutionary act
• (????/????), and perlocutionary act (????/????).

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• ? A locutionary act the act of uttering and
  conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,
  lexicon and phonology . That is when we speak we
  move our vocal organs and produce a number of
  sounds organized in a certain way and with a
  certain meaning.
• ? An illocutionary act the act of expressing the
  speakers intention
• ? A perlocutionary act the act performed by or
  resulting from saying something . It is the
  effects of the utterance on the hearer.

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• You have left the window open.
• (1) the locutionary act uttering all the
  words to express the literal meaning
• (2) the illocutionary act to ask someone to
  close the window, to make a complaint
• (3) the perlocutionary act the effect of the
  utterance, i.e., the hearer will close the window

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Searles classification of speech acts

• ? (1) American philosopher John Searle classifies
  speech acts into five categories. Specific acts
  that fall into each category share the same
  illocutionary point, but differ in strength.
• (2) 5 categories representatives,
  directives, commissives, expressives and
  declarations.

?
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Searles classification of speech acts (1969)

• Assertives/representatives(??)
• Directives(??)
• Commissives(??)
• Expressives(??)
• Declarations(??)

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Assertives/representatives

• ---- Stating or describing, saying what the
  speaker believes to be true, e.g.
• I think the film is moving.
• Im certain I have never seen the man before.
• I solemnly swear that he had got it.

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Directives

• ---- Trying to get the hearer to do something,
  e.g.
• I order you to leave right now.
• Open the window, please.
• Your money or your life!

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Commissives

• ---- Committing the speaker himself to some
  future course of action, e.g.
• I promise to come.
• I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.

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Expressives

• ----Expressing the speakers psychological state
  about something, e.g.
• Im sorry for being late.
• I apologize for the sufferings that the war has
  caused to your people.

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Declarations

• ----Bringing about an immediate change in the
  existing state or affairs, e.g.
• I now appoint you chairman of the committee.
• You are fired.
• I now declare the meeting open.

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• Note (1) All the acts that belong to the same
  category share the same purpose but differ in
  their strength or force, e.g.
• I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.
• Note (2) In order to get someone open the door,
  we can choose one from a variety of the forms in
  below
• Could you open the door, please!
• Can you open the door!
• Do you mind opening the door?
• Open the door!
• The door please!

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Indirect speech acts

• What is indirect language?
• Primary speech act the speaker's goal of
  communication
• secondary speech act the means by which he
  achieve his goal
• The relation between them is that between means
  and end.

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• conventional implicature
• non- conventional implicature
• Conversational implicature

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Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)

• Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to
  Grice, in making conversation, there is a general
  principle which all participants are expected to
  observe. It goes as follows
• Make your conversational contribution such as
  required at the stage at which it occurs by the
  accepted purpose or direction of the talk
  exchange in which you are engaged.

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• The maxim of quality
• ----Do not say what you believe to be false.
• ----Do not say that for which you lack adequate
  evidence.
• The maxim of quantity
• ----Make your contribution as informative as
  required for the current purpose of the exchange.
• ----Do not make your contribution more
  informative than is required.
• The maxim of relation
• ----Be relevant ( make your contribution
  relevant).
• The maxim of manner
• ----Avoid obscurity of expression.
• ----Avoid ambiguity.
• ----Be brief.
• ----Be orderly.

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Violation of Maxim of quality

• ----A Would you like to go movie with me
  tonight?
• ----B The final exam is approaching. Im afraid
  I have to prepare for it.
• ----A would you like to come to our party
  tonight?
• ----B Im afraid Im not feeling so well
  tonight.
• ----A Who was that lady I saw you with last
  night?
• ----B That was no lady, that was my wife.

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Violation of maxim of quantity

• At a party a young man introduces himself by
  saying Im Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28,
  unmarried
• War is war.
• Girls are girls.
• ----AWhen is Susans farewell party?
• ----BSometime next month.

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Violation of maxim of relation

• ----A How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
• ----B We had a basketball match with class 2 and
  we beat them.
• ----A The hostess is an awful bore.
• ----B The roses in the garden are beautiful,
  arent they?
• ----A What time is it?
• ----B The postman has just arrived.

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Violation of maxim of manner

• ----A Shall we get something for the kids?
• ----B Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

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Discussion

• the Cooperative Principle
• Observing
• Flouting
• conversational implicatures

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Cross-cultural pragmatic failure

• What does it refer to?
• Reason?
• Intra-cultural communication
• cross-cultural communication ? ? ?
• Pragmalinguistic failure
• sociopragmatic failure