Modern European History I HIS-106

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Modern European History IHIS-106

• Unit 7 - The Scientific Revolution

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The Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution was one of the major
  revolutions of the modern period
• Saw changes in astronomy, physics, biology, and
  chemistry
• 150 year process
• It is said to have started in 1543
• Copernicus On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres
  (1543)
• It ended with Newton
• It was comprised of three parts
• Acceptance and confirmation of the heliocentric
  view of the universe
• Development of new physics that supported this
• Development of a method of enquiry (the
  scientific method)

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• Aristotle
• (384322 BCE)

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Pre-Modern Scientific Thought

• Throughout history, mankind has constantly sought
  to explain the universe
• During the Middle Ages, western science was
  dominated by one man Aristotle
• Three important theories of Aristotle
• Four Elements - Earth, air, fire, and water sat
  in concentric spheres with earth at the center
  and air in the outermost sphere
• Motion - Rest is natural and motion occurs in two
  ways movement towards their natural place or
  through violent means
• Aether Material the heavens are made of and its
  natural motion is circular

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• Claudius Ptolemy
• (c. 90-161 AD)

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Pre-Modern Scientific Thought

• Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-161 AD)
• He was a mathematician and astronomer
• He laid out his geocentric view (Ptolemaic
  System) of the universe in the Almagest
• Earth was surrounded by a series of crystalline
  spheres which contained the sun, other planets,
  and the stars
• They rotated around the earth in perfect circles
  every day
• This view became the dominant view of the
  universe throughout the Middle Ages
• These theories fit well with Christianity
• The earth and humans were at the center of the
  universe while God was at the other end

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• Geocentric Universe

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Pre-Modern Scientific Thought

• While science did have somewhat of an impact
  during the Middle Ages, there were also strong
  religious beliefs tied into it
• Rise of Alchemy
• Reborn in Europe after 1300
• Based on the ancient Greek belief of
  transmutation
• Most popular theory was transforming lead into
  gold
• Astrology
• Events in the heavens impacting those on Earth
• This did tie in with Christianity

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Pre-Modern Scientific Thought

• In the 12th and 13th centuries, writings of the
  ancient philosophers were rediscovered
• This had an impact on the development of
  philosophy
• How do you reconcile ancient philosophers with
  the church?
• Scholasticism (c.12th 15th centuries)
• Blended Aristotles philosophy with theology
• Believed faith and reason were comparable
• Used observation and empirical thought to support
  church doctrines
• Main figures Albertus Magnus, William of
  Ockham, Bonaventure and, Thomas Aquinas

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Pre-Modern Scientific Thought

• Scholastic method was based on Aristotelian
  method
• Read a certain written work
• Read other documents relating to this work,
  including those by the church and church fathers
• Lay out any contradictions in this work
• Working with other scholars, try to figure out a
  common ground
• This was to show that there really was not a
  contradiction or that there was a
  misinterpretation on the part of the reader
• This led to the rise of other sciences
• In the 12th century there was the rise of
  Naturalists
• This was followed with the development of the
  science of optics and astronomy in the 14th
  century

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• William of Ockham
• (c.1288-c.1347)

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Causes of the Scientific Revolution

• Expansion of Trade
• With overseas travel, merchants faced
  navigational issues
• This led to research into new and improved tools
  (e.g., telescope)
• Also, new plant and animal specimens provoked
  interest
• Medieval Universities
• Studies began with the ancient philosophers
• Sparked interest in logical thought
• Ockham's Razor Do not multiply entities more
  than necessary
• University of Padua emerged as a preeminent
  school in Venice, a very free thinking city of
  the time

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Causes of the Scientific Revolution

• The Renaissance
• Renewed interest in math, especially by da Vinci
• Growth of Neo-Platonism Nature provided us with
  a greater understanding of God
• Rise of humanism
• Printing Press
• Allowed for mass production of scientific texts
• Made it easier for the masses to get access to
  such material
• The Reformation
• Already questioned the authority of the Church
• Protestant countries provided safe havens

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Revolution in Astronomy

• The greatest changes took place in astronomy
• The science did not fit with the observations
• Stars were not where they were supposed
• Did not explain the movement of Mars
• Questioning Ptolemy
• Started in the 14th century
• Humanists went back to Ptolemys original works
• Discovered that Ptolemys math was faulty
• Revolution begins in 1543
• Publication of De revolutionibus orbium
  coelestium (On the Revolution of Heavenly
  Spheres)

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• Nicolaus Copernicus
• (1473-1543)

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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
• Polish scientist
• Was the first to seriously question the Ptolemaic
  System
• Studied at the top universities of Europe
• Studied medicine, canon and civil law, and
  astronomy
• In 1503, he received a doctorate in canon law
  from the University of Padua
• He was exposed to mathematicians and astronomers
• Many of them believed that the Ptolemaic system
  was flawed
• He agreed
• How God could create such a messy system?

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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

• On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres (1543)
• Made numerous observations between 1514 and 1530
• Did not publish until May 1543 out of fear of
  negative reactions
• Explained his heliocentric view of the universe
• Copernicus Heliocentric View
• Based on mathematical calculations
• The universe was made up of eight spheres with
  the sun at the center
• The planets revolved around the sun
• The Earth has three motions that explained the
  movement of the sun and stars (daily rotation,
  annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis)

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• Copernicus Heliocentric View of the Universe

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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

• This was a huge breakthrough
• He used math to invalidate Ptolemy
• It was still conservative
• He used conservative math, not observation
• Kept the Aristotelian concept of circular orbits
• Used it to explain the perfection of Gods design
• One big problem
• What he had designed went against the Bible
• In both Psalms 931 and 9610 it said that the
  world is established, it cannot be moved

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• Tycho Brahe
• (1546-1601)

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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
• He was a Danish nobleman
• Best known for his astronomical observations
• Studied law and astronomy at the University of
  Copenhagen
• In 1572, he discovered a new star in Cassiopeia
• If the universe was unchanging where did this
  star come from?
• In 1577, he discovered a new comet
• This challenged the concept of crystalline sphere
• Built an observatory on the island of Hven
• Equipped with superior instruments
• Did not use a telescope

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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

• Observations of the night sky
• For 21 years, Brahe made observations of the
  heavens
• He complied the most accurate maps of the sky at
  this time
• Each year he went over his observations and
  corrected them
• He rejected both Ptolemy and Copernicus
• Instead he came up with his own model
• Tychonian System
• All planets, except for the Earth, revolved
  around the sun
• This whole system then revolved around the Earth
• He still accepted the Aristotelian concept of
  circular orbits

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• Tychonian System of the Universe

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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

• He also led a very interesting life
• He was a heavy drinker
• He lost part of his nose in a duel and wore a
  fake nose
• He was in possession of a tamed moose
• Even his death was interesting
• The old belief was that he died due to a ruptured
  bladder
• In 1996, his body was examined and there was a
  large amount of mercury in his hair and body
• Death was either accidental or at the hands of
  his student Johannes Kepler

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• Johannes Kepler
• (1571-1630)

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
• Born of very poor parents
• His original plan was to become a Lutheran
  minister
• Changed his major to mathematics and astronomy
  while at the University of Tübingen
• Became Lecturer of Mathematics at the University
  of Graz
• In 1600, Kepler became one of Brahes assistants
• In 1601, he was appointed as the Imperial
  Mathematician for Emperor Rudolph II
• Kepler took all of Brahes instruments and
  observations
• When he tried to apply Brahes observations to
  Copernicus theory, it did not work out

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• Keplers Observations
• Spent 25 years going over Brahes work to find
  the flaw
• He discovered the flaw was with Copernicus
• Testing numerous hypotheses, he came up with his
  laws
• Keplers Three Laws of Planetary Motion
• Each planet moves in an orbit that is elliptical
  the sun acts as one of the two foci of that
  ellipse
• Planets nearer to the sun move faster than
  planets farther away
• Planets with larger orbits revolve around the sun
  at a slower velocity than those with smaller
  orbits
• These were published in Astronomia nova (A New
  Astronomy) in 1609

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• This destroyed the Aristotelian system
• There were still problems with his laws
• He did not understand the reason behind the
  ellipses
• If the earth is moving so fast, why do we not
  move horizontally when we jump?
• Magnetism
• He believed that magnetism between the sun and
  the planets kept the latter in orbital motion
• However was rejected as sounding too magical
• He also improved on the telescope
• He used two convex lenses to produce greater
  magnification (the Keplerian Telescope) in 1611

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• Galileo Galilei
• (1564-1642)

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
• Born of a lesser noble Pisan family
• Studied medicine then math at the University of
  Pisa
• In 1589, he became the chair of mathematics at
  the University
• In 1592, he began teaching math at the University
  of Padua
• Contributions to astronomy
• Improved the design of the original telescope by
  making a 20x telescope in 1609
• Used his new telescope to observe the heavens
• He discovered craters and mountains on the moon
• He also discovered the Jupiter had four moons

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger) (1610)
• Stated the moon was not the perfect or
  ethereal surface Aristotle predicted
• Stated that the moons of Jupiter were actually
  orbiting around the planet
• Letters on Sunspots (1613)
• Galileo supported the heliocentric view of the
  universe
• It also showed that the sun was also flawed
• Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems (1632)
• Examined both the Ptolemaic and Copernican views
• Most of the work focused on supporting the
  Copernican view
• It had been cleared by Inquisition censors

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Contributions to motion
• Galileos Principle of Inertia - A body continues
  to move in a certain direction unless stopped
• Based on experiments and observation
• Was able to tie in motion of the earth to
  astronomy
• Dropping objects from Leaning Tower of Pisa?
• Discourses on Two New Sciences (1638)
• It included the Law of Falling Bodies
• All bodies, regardless of mass, fall at the same
  rate of speed
• Planets also fall at the same rate of speed
• Orbits vary not to the size of the planet but the
  size of the orbits
• Challenged Aristotle on many grounds

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• Giordano Bruno
• (1548-1600)

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Reaction of the Catholic Church

• Catholic Church would not accept any scientific
  ideas that threatened church beliefs
• Jesuits believed these would weaken the Church
• Dominicans supported Aristotelian beliefs
• Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)
• Believed that stars were other suns and there was
  a plurality of worlds
• Stated that the universe was infinite
• Burned at the stake by the Inquisition on charges
  of heresy, blasphemy, and immoral conduct

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Reaction of the Catholic Church

• Church challenged the Copernican System after
  1600
• Argued that the Copernican system was just not
  possible
• It condemned Copernicanism
• Galileo did not believe his work was heretical
• Parts of the Bible should not be taken literally
• Stated the Scripture cannot be wrong but man can
  misinterpret
• Believed that the Bible should not be used to
  understand the heavens
• In 1615, Galileo wrote a letter to the Grand
  Duchess of Tuscany
• Argued for separation of theology and science
• God endowed us with reason to understand the
  universe

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Reaction of the Catholic Church

• In 1616, Galileo asked the Church to not ban his
  ideas
• Cardinal Robert Bellarmine told him to teach his
  system only as a hypothesis, to as fact
• He agreed
• This changed after publication of Dialogue (1632)
• In 1633, Galileo was brought before the
  Inquisition
• Charges were suspicion of heresy
• He was forced to recant heliocentrism
• He was placed under house arrest
• Dialogues was banned
• Pope Urban VIII issued a papal decree which
  stated it was heresy to believe in heliocentrism

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Reaction of the Catholic Church

• Catholic Church was most hostile to science in
  Catholic countries
• Especially true in Italy (except in Venice) and
  Spain
• In Venice, anti-clericalism was strongest
• The University of Padua was located there
• Number of key scientists studied there
• In France, state authority trumped church
  authority
• Allowed more freedom there
• In Protestant countries, less state control meant
  less interference
• Ironically, Protestants were hostile to
  Copernicanism for Biblical reasons

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• Sir Francis Bacon
• (1561-1626)

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Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

• Development of Scientific Method
• Wanted to find a proper way to examine the
  natural world
• This meant trashing old ideas and coming up with
  new ones
• Two main figures Bacon and Descartes
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Attended Trinity College, Cambridge
• Discovered Aristotelian methods were incorrect
  and led to the wrong conclusion
• He was a judge and Lord Chancellor
• Was interested in natural philosophy and the
  search for the truth

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Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

• Meditationes Sacrae (1597)
• Most famous for the line scientia potentia est
  or knowledge is power
• The Proficience and Advancement of Learning
  (1605)
• Discredited the methods of the current natural
  philosophers
• They were using ancient methods which were
  incorrect
• Novum Organum (1620)
• Scientists would never learn anything unless they
  changed their methods
• Inductive reasoning - Use observations to draw
  general conclusions and then repeating
  experiments for verification
• This became known as the scientific method

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• René Descartes
• (1596-1650)

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René Descartes (1596-1650)

• René Descartes (1596-1650)
• Born into a minor noble family in France
• Attended a Jesuit school at the age of 11
• Received a law degree from the University of
  Poitiers
• Served under Maurice of Nassau during the Thirty
  Years War
• Under tutelage from Isaac Beeckman, he became
  interested in math
• Some of his ideas were similar to Bacon
• Both believed that established knowledge should
  be questioned
• Both believed that ideas should be valued on
  their usefulness
• Descartes was more of a rationalist and believed
  in logic and mathematics

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René Descartes (1596-1650)

• Contributions to math
• Linked algebra from Arab and Hindu math to
  geometry from Greek math
• Key for future methods of science
• Contributions to epistemology
• Descartes had a dream in November 1619
• In it, he came up with a new rational
  mathematical system to explaining the universe
• He would spend the rest of his life working on
  this system

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René Descartes (1596-1650)

• Discourse on Method (1637)
• Doubted everything including his own existence
• Cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am)
• From there was able to reestablish knowledge
  using deductive reasoning
• Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)
• Proved the existence of God
• Dualism between the mind and the body
• The mind cannot be doubted by the body and
  material world can, the two must be radically
  different
• The universe is made up of two things thinking
  substance and extended substance

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René Descartes (1596-1650)

• All creatures were machines
• Humans were different because they had rational
  minds
• Allows them to find the path to knowledge
• The universe was a machine with laws
• Humans could use math to understand it
• Descartes died on February 11, 1650
• Attending the court of Queen Christina of Sweden
• She was an early riser
• He was not
• Developed pneumonia and died ten days later

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René Descartes (1596-1650)

• In 1667, Descartes works were placed on the
  Catholic churchs Index of Prohibited Books
• This was mainly due to his rejection of religious
  influence in his studies
• Also, he condemned the Aristotelian method of
  science
• Key impact on the scientific method
• He emphasized deduction and mathematical logic
• Complimented Bacons work of experiments and
  induction
• Newton is going to take it to the next level
• Used Bacons empiricism with Descartes
  rationalism
• This led to the use of systematic observations
  and experiments

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• Sir Isaac Newton
• (1643-1727)

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Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
• English mathematician and experimenter
• One of the greatest scientific minds of western
  civilization
• He was secretive, obsessive, vindictive, and
  petty
• Went to Trinity College, Cambridge for math
• Developing Calculus
• Plague of 1666 forced him home for 18 months
• Invented calculus and started working on his law
  of gravity
• Work in Optics
• From1670 to 1672, devoted himself to optics
• Invented a reflecting telescope

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Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• Contributions to mechanics
• In 1677, began working on the role of gravity
• Worked on Galileos Theory of Inertia and
  Keplers Law of Planetary Motion
• Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
  (1687)
• Better known as Principia
• Defined his three laws of motion
• For every action, there is always an equal and
  opposite reaction
• Applied them to both planetary bodies and
  terrestrial objects
• Law of Universal Gravity

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Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• What makes Newton so special?
• Took the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
  and created one solid theory
• The universe operated as one regulated and
  uniform machine
• All of this was backed by observation,
  experience, and math
• Calculus controversy
• Did Newton really invent it?
• Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) developed calculus
  later than Newton
• However, published before Newton did
• Most scholars agree that the two developed it
  independently of one another

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• Gottfried Leibniz
• (1646-1716)

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Advances in Medicine

• Medieval medicine was strongly affected by the
  ancient Greeks
• Galen of Pergamum (c.130-c.200 BCE)
• Greek physician during Roman era
• Primary anatomy studies were based on animal
  dissection
• Against Roman law to dissect a human body
• Many of his observations were inaccurate
• Four humours blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and
  black bile
• Disease was the result of an imbalance in these
  humours
• Treatment involved purging, bleeding, or
  application of the opposites

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• Paracelsus
• (1493-1541)

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Paracelsus (1493-1541)

• Paracelsus (1493-1541)
• Born Philippus Aureolus von Hohenheim
• Paracelsus meant greater than Celsus
• Attended the Universities of Basel, Vienna, and
  Ferrara
• No proof he obtained a medical degree
• Humans are microcosms
• Humans are a smaller version of the larger world
  (macrocosm)
• All parts of the universe were reproduced in a
  human but on a smaller scale

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Paracelsus (1493-1541)

• Chemical reactions were replicated inside a human
  being
• Believed disease was due to a chemical imbalance
• Principle of like cures like
• He often used poison to cure a disease
• Known as the homicide physician
• Significance
• Forefather of modern medicine
• Rejected Galens theories about disease and came
  up with his own
• Like cures like is used in homeopathy and
  holistic medicine

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• Andreas Vesalius
• (1514-1564)

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Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
• Born in the Spanish Netherlands
• Received his medical degree from the University
  of Padua
• Became professor of surgery there
• Used revolutionary teaching techniques for
  surgery
• Tabulae Anatomicae Sex (1538)
• Collections of his human anatomy drawings
• Very well received
• Paduan judge gave him the bodies of executed
  criminals for dissection

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Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

• On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543)
• Seven volume set
• Careful and detailed analysis of human anatomy
• Contained highly detailed drawings
• Most accurate illustrations at the time
• Vesalius did disprove some of Galens errors
• Was able to give accurate descriptions of the
  human body
• Discovered that blood came from the heart not the
  liver
• Became the Imperial Physician for HRE Charles V

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• Illustrations from On the Fabric of the Human Body

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• William Harvey
• (1578-1657)

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William Harvey (1578-1657)

• William Harvey (1578-1657)
• Born in Kent, England
• He received his BA from Cambridge University
• Receive his medical degree from the University of
  Padua
• Was appointed as a physician to St. Bartholomew's
  Hospital
• Became a fellow of the Royal College of
  Physicians
• Physician to Kings James I and Charles I
• On the Motion of the Heart and the Blood (1628)
• Heart pumped blood throughout the body, not the
  liver
• Stated that the blood system was one closed
  system, not two
• Capillaries were not discovered until 1660s

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• Benedict de Spinoza
• (1632-1677)

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Science and Religion

• Scientific Revolution caused many to question
  church beliefs
• Believed there should be a line drawn between
  religion and nature
• Is it necessary to spit religion and science?
• Not everyone believed so
• Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677)
• His family had fled Portugal to avoid the
  Inquisition and settled in Holland
• Studied under Franciscus Van den Enden, ex-Jesuit
  and atheist
• Was exposed to the works of Descartes and other
  natural philosophers

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Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677)

• Writ of Censure
• Received this in 1656 from an Amsterdam synagogue
• Similar to excommunication
• Was accused of abominable heresies and
  monstrous deeds
• He spent the rest of his life working as an
  optician
• He died from a work-related lung ailment
• Pantheism
• Believed that nature and God are one in the same
• God is not the personal God with human-like
  emotions
• To find God is to look around you since He is
  found everywhere

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Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677)

• God is one, that is, only one substance can be
  granted in the universe
• Believed mankind has many misconceptions about
  God and nature
• Nature exists only for ones use
• Anything that cannot be explained must be
  attributed to a creator-God who must be
  worshipped to gain their ends
• When bad things happen, people claim the gods
  were angry at them, rather than realizing good
  and bad happen to all

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• The inside of a nautilus shell

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• Blaise Pascal
• (1623-1662)

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Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

• Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
• French mathematician, scientist, and religious
  philosopher
• Was seen as a child math prodigy
• By 13, he had already proven Euclids 32nd
  proposition
• At 19, he invented a calculating machine, a
  Pascaline
• Devoted himself to the study of science
• Worked in hydrodynamics and hydrostatics
• Invented a hydraulic press and the syringe
• Tried to prove the existence of a vacuum
• Suffered from dyspepsia and insomnia for most of
  his life
• In 1647, he was bedridden with pain

69
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

• In 1654, Pascal had a riding accident
• While traveling over the Seine River, his horse
  broke free and jumped over the parapets
• The carriage was left dangling off the bridge for
  a period of time
• At this time he made a pledge to devote his life
  to religion
• Defense of the Christian Religion
• Devoted the last years of his life on this
• Published after his death as Pensées, or Thoughts
• Christianity was the only religion that could
  recognize a persons true state of being both
  vulnerable and great
• Pascals Wagner