Chapter Five

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Chapter Five

• First Two Years
• Biosocial Development

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Body Changes

• Rapid changes
• Consequences of neglect severe

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Body Size

• Most notable time for physical changes
• in each of the first 12 months they grow an inch
• birth weight usually doubles by 4 months and
  triples by end of first year
• head-sparingbiological protection of the brain
  when malnutrition temporarily affects body growth

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Sleep

• Newborns sleep about 17 hours per day
• needed for rapid growth
• REM sleeprapid eye movement sleepdeclines
• quiet sleep increases at about 3 months
• too immature to sleep through the night
• Infants sleep patterns influenced by brain waves
  and parents caregiving practices

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Early Brain Development

• Most critical biosocial aspect of growth
• newborns skull disproportionately large
• at birth, 25 of adult brain weight
• by age 2, 75 of adult brain weight

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Growth in the First Two Years
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Connections in the Brain

• Head measurement increases 35 in first year
• brain development changes in the brains
  communication system

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Basic Brain Structures

• Neuronslong thin nerve cells that make up
  nervous system
• created before birth
• 70 in cortex (brains outer layer)
• Axonsnerve fibers that extend from neurons that
  send impulses
• Dendritesnerve fibers extending from neurons
  that receive impulses

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Action Potentialhttp//faculty.washington.edu/chu
dler/ap.html
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Action Potential
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Areas of the Cortex
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Basic Brain Structures, cont.

• Neuronslong thin nerve cells that make up
  nervous system
• created before birth
• 70 in cortex (brains outer layer)
• Axonsnerve fibers that extend from neurons that
  send impulses
• Dendritesnerve fibers extending from neurons
  that receive impulses

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Basic Brain Structures, cont.

• Each neuron has a single axon (nerve fiber) that
  extends from it and meets the dendrites of other
  neurons at intersections called synapses
• axons and dendrites dont actually touch at
  synapses
• electrical impulses trigger brain chemicals
  called neurotransmitters, which carry information
  from axon of sending neuron across synaptic gap
  to dendrites of receiving neuron
• synapses are critical communication links with
  the brain

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Connections in the Brain
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Exuberance

• At birth more than 100 million neurons are
  present
• Phenomenal growth is referred to as transient
  exuberancefivefold increase in dendrites in
  first 2 years
• As many as 15,000 connections may be made per
  neuron

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Experience Enhances the Brain

• Specifics of brain structure and growth depend
  partly on experience
• exuberance is transienttransitional stage
  between newborn brains immaturity and the
  maturity of older childs or adults brain
• underused neurons are inactivated, or pruned

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Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.

• Reactions to Stress
• experiencing stress may cause overproduction of
  stress hormone
• developing brain can lose capacity to react
  normally to stress
• normal neuron connections may have been pruned
  for rapid response to repeated stress

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Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.

• William Greenough identified 2 experience-related
  parts of brain growth
• experience-expectant brain functions
• require basic common experiences to develop
  normally
• experience-dependent brain functions
• depend on particular and variable experiences to
  develop

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Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.

• Human brains are designed for expected
  experiences
• how the brain is structured and connected will
  depend on those experiences
• the brain expects certain experiences at certain
  ages
• these experiences critical if connections are to
  form if connections not formed, plasticity may
  allow new connections and pathways as experiences
  continue

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The Senses and Motor Skills

• Sensorimotor Stage
• cognition develops between senses and motor skills

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Sensation and Perception

• All senses function at birth
• sensationthe response of sensory system when it
  detects stimulus
• begins with outer organnose, eyes, etc.
• perceptionmental procession of sensory
  information when brain interprets sensation
• begins in the brain and requires experience
• cognitionthinking about what was perceived

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Listening

• Begins prenatally and is acute at birth
• Certain sounds trigger newborns reflexes
• Newborns particularly attentive to human voice
• Newborns sensitive hearing combines with brain
  to distinguish sounds

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Looking

• Vision the least mature sense at birth
• Visual experience combined with visual cortex
  maturation improves vision
• with time scanning becomes more organized,
  efficient, and centered
• Binocular visionability to focus two eyes in a
  coordinated manner to see single image

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Tasting, Smelling, and Touching

• tastefunctions at birth calmed by sugar,
  sensitive to sour
• touchcomforted by human touch feel pain
• smellcan distinguish between odors and have
  preferences
• Early sensation is organized for
• social interaction
• comfort

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Motor Skills

• Most visible and dramatic body change of infancy

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Reflexes

• Reflexes for survival are categorized
• maintain oxygen supply (breathing)
• maintain body temperature (crying, kicking)
• manage feeding (rooting and sucking)
• swallowing aids feeding
• spitting up if too much has been swallowed
• crying when stomach empty

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Gross Motor Skills

• Involve large muscles and body movements
• crawling, creeping, walking

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Fine Motor Skills

• Small, finely tuned movements, especially of
  hands and fingers, including
• successful grabbing
• fingering, pointing, and holding
• grasping a moving object
• transferring objects from hand to hand
• adjusting reach

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Age Norms (in Months) for Gross Motor Skills
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Variations and Ethnic Differences

• Age at which motor skills acquired varies greatly
  because of
• ethnicity
• inherited factorsgenetic differences
• patterns of infant care
• individual rate of physical maturation

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Public Health Measures

• Newborn Care
• Immunizations
• Nutrition

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Immunization

• Immunizationprocess that stimulates bodys
  immune system to defend against attack by a
  particular contagious disease
• smallpox
• polio
• measles

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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

• Risk factors?
• laying baby on stomach to sleep
• secondhand smoke
• low birthweight
• formula feeding rather than breast feeding

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Ethnicity and SIDS

• Asian babies less likely to succumb
• Babies of African descent more likely
• Infantcare routines in different cultures play a
  role

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Nutrition

• How Infants Are Fed

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Breast Is Best

• Breast Milk
• begins with colostrum, high-calorie nourishment
  before milk lets down
• easily digestible
• has antibodies and antibacterial properties
• better for babys health
• Bottle Feeding babies more likely to have
  allergies
• better option if mother is HIV-positive or using
  drugs
• Feeding on Demand

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Malnutrition

• Severe Malnutrition
• brain does not have enough nutrition to develop
  normally
• no body reserves to protect from disease
• marasmus and kwashiorkor diseases are direct
  result of malnutrition

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Chapter Six

• The First Two Years
• Cognitive Development

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Sensorimotor Intelligence

• Sensoritmotor intelligenceactive intelligence
  causing babies to think while using senses and
  motor skills

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Stages 1 and 2 Primary Circular Reactions

• The feedback loop involving the infants own body
  infant senses motion and tries to make sense of
  it
• Stage 1 Reflexes
• Stage 2 First Acquired Adaptations
• adaptations of reflexes, i.e., suckingnew
  information taken in by senses and responded to

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Stages 1 and 2 Primary Circular Reactions, cont.

• Assimilation and Accommodation
• assimilationtaking in new information by
  incorporating it into previous knowledge
• accommodation intake of new data to re-adjust,
  refine, expand prior schema or actions
• babies eagerly adapt their reflexes and senses
  to whatever experiences they have

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Stages 1 and 2 Primary Circular Reactions, cont.

• Sucking as a Stage-Two Adaptation
• begin adapting at about one month
• reflexive assimilation

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Stages 3 and 4 Secondary Circular Reactions

• feedback loop involving people and objects
• Stage 3 Making Interesting Events Last
• repetition
• awareness
• Stage 4 New Adaptation and Anticipation
• goal-directed behavior
• object permanence

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Stages 5 and 6 Tertiary Circular Reactions

• Feedback loop that involves active
  experimentation and exploration
• involves creativity, action, and ideas
• Stage 5 New Means Through Active
  Experimentation
• little scientist

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Stages 5 and 6 Tertiary Circular Reactions, cont.

• Stage 6 New Means Through Mental Combinations
• mental combinationssequence of mental actions
  tried out before actual performance
• deferred imitationperception of something
  someone else does (modeling), then performing
  action at a later time

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Piaget and Modern Research

• Habituationprocess of getting used to an object
  or event through repeated exposure to it
• fMRIfunctional magnetic resonance imaging
  measuring technique for brain activity and
  neurological responses
• First three years are prime time for cognitive
  development

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Information Processing

• Information-processing theory perspective that
  compares human thinking processes to computer
  analysis of data, including sensory input, stored
  memories, and output

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Affordances

• Affordancesopportunities for perception and
  interaction offered by environment
• How something is perceived and acted upon depends
  on
• past experiences
• current developmental level
• sensory awareness of opportunities
• immediate needs and motivation

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Sudden Drops

• Visual cliff measures depth perception, which is
  based not on maturity level but affordance
• depends on prior experience
• Object Constancy
• things remain what they are, despite changes in
  perception or appearance
• boundaries of three-dimensional objects

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Movement and People

• Dynamic perception1 of the 2 principles
  explaining infant perception namely, that from
  birth perception is primed to focus on movement
  and change
• 2nd principle explaining infant perception is
  that babies are fascinated by people
• Infants most interested in emotional affordances
  of their caregivers

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Memory

• Certain amount of experience and maturation in
  order to process and remember experiences
• In first year infants have great difficulty
  storing new memories
• Older children often unable to describe events
  that occurred when they were younger

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Memory, cont.

• Very early memories possible if
• situation similar to real life
• motivation high
• special measures aid retrieval by acting as
  reminders

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Reminders and Repetition

• Reminder sessionany perceptual experience that
  helps a person recall an idea or experience

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A Little Older, A Little More Memory

• After 6 months infants capable of retaining
  information for longer periods of time with less
  reminding
• Deferred imitation apparent after end of first
  year
• By middle of the 2nd year, children capable of
  remembering and reenacting complex sequences

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A Little Older, A Little More Memory, cont.

• Memory is not just single entity distinct brain
  regions for particular aspects of memory humans
  have a memory for
• words
• images
• actions
• smells
• experiences
• memorized facts

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Language What Develops in Two Years?

• Most impressive intellectual achievement of young
  child and also of all humans

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The Universal Sequence of Language Development

• Children around the world have the same sequence
  of early language development but
• timing and depth of linguistic ability vary

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First Noises and Gestures

• Baby talkhigh-pitched, simplified, and
  repetitive ways adults talk to babies
• Vocalization
• crying
• cooing
• Babbling
• deaf babies do it later and less frequently, but
  are more advanced in use of gestures

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First Words

• First word and sentences at age of 1 year

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The Language Explosion and Early Grammar

• Naming explosionsudden increase in infant
  vocabulary, especially nouns, beginning at 18
  months
• Holophrasesingle word that expresses a complete,
  meaningful thought
• Grammarall the methods that languages use to
  communicate meaning

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Theories of Language Learning

• Even the very young use language well
• Three schools of thought
• infants are taught language
• infants teach themselves
• social impulses foster infant language

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Theory 1 Infants are Taught

• Skinners reinforcement theory quantity and
  quality of talking to child affects rate of
  language development (learned)
• parents are good instructors
• baby talk characterized by
• high pitch
• simpler vocabulary
• shorter sentence length
• more questions and commands
• repetition

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Theory 2 Infants Teach Themselves

• Chomsky and LAD (Language Acquisition
  Device)hypothesized neurological (inborn)
  structure that prewires all children for
  language, including basic aspects of intonation,
  grammar, and vocabulary
• infants innately ready to use their minds to
  understand and speak whatever language offered to
  them
• they are experience expectant

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Theory Three Social Impulses Foster Language

• Social-pragmaticsocial reason for language to
  communicate
• Infants seek to respond, which shows their being
  social in nature and thus mutually dependentby
• vocalizing
• babbling
• gesturing
• listening
• pointing

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A Hybrid Theory

• Emergentist coalitioncombination of valid
  aspects of several theories
• cortex contains many language centers
• nature provides several paths to learning
  language

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Chapter Seven

• The First Two Years
• Psychosocial Development

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Theories About Early Psychosocial Development

• Importance of parents and their contribution to
  emotional growth

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Psychoanalytic Theory

• Connects biosocial and psychosocial development

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Freud Oral and Anal Stages

• Oral Stage1st stage, where infant obtains
  pleasure through sucking and biting
• Anal Stage2nd stage, where anus becomes main
  source of gratification, i.e., bowel movements
  and the control of them

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Erikson Trust and Autonomy

• 1st StageTrust vs. Mistrust
• basic needs need to be met with consistency,
  continuity, and sameness
• 2nd StageAutonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• basic desire to gain self-rule over their own
  actions and bodies and to feel ashamed if it
  doesnt happen

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Behaviorism

• Infants emotions and personality are molded as
  parents reinforce or punish childs spontaneous
  behavior
• social learning adds to personality formation
• social referencing strengthens learning by
  observation

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Cognitive Theory

• Individuals thoughts and values determine
  perspective on the world
• Working modelset of assumptions used to organize
  perceptions and experiences

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Epigenetic Theory

• Each child is born with a genetic predisposition
  to develop certain traits that affect emotional
  development
• Temperamentconstitutionally based individual
  differences in emotion, motor, and attentional
  reactivity and self-regulation.
• inhibited
• uninhibited
• epigeneticthough personality traits not learned,
  environment affects their expression

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Research on Temperament Nine Characteristics

• activity level
• rhythmicity
• approach-withdrawal
• adaptability
• intensity of reaction
• threshold of responsiveness
• quality of mood
• distractibility
• attention span

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Temperament and Caregiving

• Inhibited vs. Uninhibited
• responsive care and encouragement can help
  inhibited children become less so
• Match between parent and child
• goodness of fit

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Sociocultural Theory

• Emphasizes the many ways social context can have
  impact on infant-caregiver relationship
• If social context changes, child can change

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Emotional Development in Infancy

• In the first 2 years of emotional development,
  infants progress from simple reactions to complex
  patterns of social awareness

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The First Year

• Newborns first discernable emotions
• distress
• contentment
• Later emotions (after first weeks)
  
• anger
• fear, expressed clearly by stranger wariness and
  separation anxiety

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The Second Year

• Fear and anger typically decrease
• Laughing, crying more discriminating
• New emotions appear
• pride
• shame
• embarrassment
• guilt

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Self-Awareness

• Foundation for emotional growth
• realization of individual distinctions
• At about 5 months begin developing a sense of
  self apart from mother
• 15-18 months the Me-self
• rouge experiment

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Pride and Shame

• Self-awareness becomes linked with self-concept
  early on
• Negative comments more likely to lead to less
  pride or shame
• Own pride can be more compelling than parental
  approval

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The Development of Social Bonds

• Social connections help us understand human
  emotions

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Synchrony

• Synchronycoordinated interaction attunement
• Helps infants learn to express own feelings
• Imitation is pivotal
• Becomes more elaborate and more frequent with
  time
• Learning through play
• playful interactions by both partners
• important for both to be responsive

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Attachment

• Enduring emotional connection
• Proximity-seeking behaviors
• Contact-maintaining behaviors

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Secure and Insecure Attachment

• Bowlby and Ainsworth
• Securerelationship of trust and confidence that
  provides comfort, assurance, and secure base

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Secure and Insecure Attachment, cont.

• Insecurerelationship that is unpredictable or
  unstable
• avoidant one person tries to avoid any
  connection with another
• resistant/ambivalent anxiety and uncertainly
  keep one person clinging to another

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Measuring Attachment

• Strange Situationlab procedure to measure
  attachment observed are
• exploration of the toys (caregiver present)
• reaction to caregivers departure
• reaction to caregivers return
• disorganized behaviorneither secure nor insecure
  attachmentmarked by inconsistent behavior of
  caregiver and infant toward each other

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Insecure Attachment as a Warning Sign

• Stressed mother (although not always an
  indicator)
• Mother too withdrawn
• Inconsistent behavior of mother (conflicting
  messages sent by her)
• Insecure attachments repairable

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Social Referencing

• Looking to others for cues

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Referencing Mom

• Look to mother for comfort
• Mothers tone and expression can become guide to
  how to react to unfamiliar or ambiguous event

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Referencing Dad

• Fathers play more than mothers
• Infants look to fathers for fun and physical play
• Physically active play with fathers may
  contribute to development of social skills and
  emotional expression
• Physically active play with fathers helps
  children master motor skills and develop muscle
  control

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Cultural Differences

• Fathers, single mothers, grandparents, and
  cultures with other family structures still
  provide needed referencing
• Fathers involvement
• can benefit later development of child
• raise mothers self-confidence
• and two parents working together are better able
  to meet infants needs than either alone

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Infant Day Care

• Almost all infants cared for by people other than
  parents part of the time
• Specifics vary from culture to culture
• The older the child and the more money the family
  has, the more likely possibility of day care

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Infant Day-Care

• Family day care
• Center care
• Day care generally beneficial
• High-quality programs include
• adequate attention to each infant
• encouragement of sensorimotor exploration and
  language development
• attention to health and safety
• well-trained professional caregivers

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Infant Day Care, cont.

• Cognitive and biosocial development are more
  advanced by day care than at home
• Poor day care has detrimental effects

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Conclusions in Theory and Practice

• No single theory stands out as best
  interpretation of developments during first 2
  years
• Do not know the extent to which positive
  influence can compensate for negative one

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Conclusions in Theory and Practice, cont.

• Parental attentiveness crucial to synchrony,
  attachment, and social referencing.
• In dealing with children with problems, need a
  practical rather than theoretical approach that
  focuses on their specific issues