Science FCAT Benchmark Review

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Science FCATBenchmark Review
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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• What is matter?
• Anything that has mass and takes up space.
• Density the amount of matter in a given volume
  (DM/V)
• Ductility the ability to be pulled into a thin
  strand, like a wire
• Malleability the ability to be pressed or
  pounded into a thin sheet

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These are examples of?
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Formula for Density

• D M/V
• Where
• DDensity
• MMass
• VVolume

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Electrical Conductivity How well a substance
  allows electricity to flow through it
• Solubility The ability to dissolve in another
  substance

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Physical Properties
• Are those that can be observed without changing
  the make-up, or identity of the matter.
• Chemical Properties
• Describe matter based on its ability to change
  into a new kind of matter. Ie, paper/flammability,
  iron/O2

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Physical Change occurs when a physical property
  (size/shape) of a substance is changed many
  physical changes can be undone. Ie, folding paper
• Chemical Change occurs when a one or more
  substances are changed into new substances with
  different properties cannot be undone by
  physical means

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Strand A The Nature of Matter
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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Defining Features
• Solid
• Keeps it shape and volume
• Liquid
• Takes the shape of its container
• Keeps the same volume, in a container or not
• Can flow
• Gas
• Takes the shape of its?
• Takes the volume of ?
• Can ?

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Boiling Point temperature at which a substance
  changes from a liquid state to a gaseous state
• Freezing Point temperature at which a substance
  changes from a liquid state to a solid state
• Melting Point temperature at which a substance
  changes from a solid state to a liquid state
• Condensation Point temperature at which a
  substance changes from a gaseous state to a
  liquid state
• Sublimation change from the solid state to the
  gaseous state
• Deposition change from the gaseous state to the
  solid state

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Temperature measure of the average kinetic
  energy of the particles of a substance. Scales
  used?

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Waves
• Crest peak/highest point of wave
• Trough valley/lowest point of wave
• Amplitude distance the wave oscillates from its
  resting position. The larger the amplitude, the
  more energy carried by the wave.
• Wavelength the distance from one point on one
  wave to a corresponding point on an adjacent
  wave, ie. crest to crest, rp to rp, trough to
  trough
• Resting Position

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• http//id.mind.net/zona/mstm/physics/waves/partsO
  fAWave/waveParts.htm

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Element simplest form of matter
• Atom smallest particle into which an element
  can be divided and still have properties of that
  element.
• Compound/Molecule Two or more elements that are
  combined.
• Mixture a combination of two or more substances
  that have not combined chemically

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Subatomic Particles
• Proton positive charge nucleus
• Neutron no charge nucleus
• Electron negative charge outside the nucleus
  (electron clouds)
• Proton and neutrons have about the same mass.
  Electrons are significantly smaller.
• An atom is identified by the number of protons in
  its nucleus

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Strand A The Nature of Matter

• Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element
  that have a different number of neutrons.
• Hydrogen has one proton.
• 0 neutron protium
• 1 neutron deuterium
• 2 neutrons tritium

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A. Mixture
B. Solution
C. Compound
D. Pure Substance
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You are correct!
Why are B, C and D not correct?
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Strand B - Energy

• Energy the ability to do work
• Geothermal energy obtained from the thermal
  energy inside Earth
• Mechanical energy an object has because of its
  motion or position (kinetic/potential)
• Nuclear energy contained in the nuclei of atoms

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What kinds of power plants are these?
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Strand B - Energy

• Wind using the wind (turbines)
• Hydroelectric using water
• Tidal using the waves/tides
• Solar using sun (photovoltaic cells)
• Fossil fuels oil, coal, natural gas (formed
  millions of years ago).
• Electrical energy produced by electric charges

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• Turbines, turbines, turbines!!!!
• Remember that most power plants have a turbine
  somewhere in them that allows them to convert
  (not create) energy.
• Remember that energy can never be created or
  destroyed.

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What kinds of power plants are these?
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Strand B - Energy

• Sound energy carried by sound waves
• Light energy carried by light and other kinds
  of electromagnetic waves
• Chemical energy stored in chemical bonds
• Thermal Energy related to the temperature of a
  substance
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation

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Strand B - Energy

• Conduction transfer of heat from a warmer
  substance to a cooler substance (contact)
• Convection transfer of heat warmer fluid/gas
  rises and cooler sinks
• Radiation transfer of heat in the form of
  electromagnetic waves at random

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Conduction
Convection
Radiation
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Strand B Energy

• Law of Conservation of Energy Energy cannot be
  created nor destroyed, it can only change form or
  be transferred
• Kinetic Energy energy an object has in motion
• Potential Energy stored energy an object has

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Strand B - Energy

• Energy from Sun (electromagnetic spectrum)
• Energy inefficiency (heat loss) ie, lamp example
• Heat flow ? warmer to cooler
• Energy flow sun ? plants ? animals ? fossil
  fuels ? heat

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Benchmarks SC.B.1.2.2, SC.B.1.2.3,
SC.B.1.2.4, SC.B.1.2.5 and SC.B.1.2.6
F. Electrical
G. Heat
H. Light
I. Mechanical
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You are correct!
Why are G, H and I not correct?
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Strand C Force and Motion

• Force push or pull

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Scalars Vectors

• The motion of objects can be described by words -
  words such as distance, displacement, speed,
  velocity, and acceleration. These mathematical
  quantities which are used to describe the motion
  of objects can be divided into two categories.
  The quantity is either a scalar or a vector.
  These two categories can be distinguished from
  one another by their distinct definitions
• Scalars are quantities which are fully described
  by a magnitude alone.
• Vectors are quantities which are fully described
  by both a magnitude and a direction.

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Scalars Vectors

• Distance and speed are scalar quantities
• Displacement and velocity are vector quantities.
• Examples While speed (like 30km/hr) is a scalar,
  velocity (30km/hr North) is a vector, consisting
  of a speed and a direction (north).

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Scalar or Vector?

• 5 m
• 30 m/sec, East
• 20 degrees Celsius
• 256 bytes
• 4,000 calories
• 5 mi., right

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Distance/Displacement

• Distance and displacement are two quantities
  which may seem to mean the same thing, yet they
  have distinctly different meanings and
  definitions.
• Distance is a scalar quantity which refers to
  "how much ground an object has covered" during
  its motion.
• Displacement is a vector quantity which refers to
  "how far out of place an object is" it is the
  object's change in position.

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Distance/Displacement Check

• A student walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South, 4
  meters West, and finally 2 meters North.

4 meters 2 meters 2 meters 4
meters
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Distance/Displacement

• Even though the student has walked a total
  distance of 12 meters, her displacement is 0
  meters. During the course of her motion, she has
  "covered 12 meters of ground" (distance 12 m).
  Yet, when she is finished walking, she is not
  "out of place" i.e., there is no displacement
  for her motion (displacement 0 m).
  Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give
  attention to direction. The 4 meters east is
  canceled by the 4 meters west and the 2 meters
  south is canceled by the 2 meters north.

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Distance/Displacement Check

• The diagram below shows the position of a
  cross-country skier at various times. At each of
  the indicated times, the skier turns around and
  reverses the direction of travel. In other words,
  the skier moves from A to B to C to D. Use the
  diagram to determine the distance traveled by the
  skier and the resulting displacement during these
  three minutes.
• A B
• 40 m 40 m___
• 100 m
• C D

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Distance/Displacement

• Seymour Action views soccer games from under the
  bleachers. He frequently paces back and forth to
  get the best view. The following diagram below
  shows several of Seymour's positions at various
  times. At each marked position, Seymour makes a
  "U-turn" and moves in the opposite direction. In
  other words, Seymour moves from position A to B
  to C to D. What is Seymour's resulting
  displacement and distance of travel?

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Distance/Displacement

• D B C A
• ___________________________________
• -10 0 10 20 30

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Lets Check

• What is the displacement of a cross country team
  that begins a ten mile course ending up back at
  the school?
• What is the distance and displacement of the race
  car drivers in the Indy 500?

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Speed

• Speed is a scalar quantity which refers to "how
  fast an object is moving." A fast-moving object
  has a high speed while a slow-moving object has a
  low speed. An object with no movement at all has
  a zero speed.

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Constant Speed

• Moving objects don't always travel with erratic
  and changing speeds. Occasionally, an object will
  move at a steady rate with a constant speed. That
  is, the object will cover the same distance every
  regular interval of time. For instance, a
  cross-country runner might be running with a
  constant speed of 6 m/s in a straight line. If
  her speed is constant, then the distance traveled
  every second is the same. The runner would cover
  a distance of 6 meters every second. If you
  measured her position each second, you would
  notice that her position was changing by 6 meters
  each second. The following data tables depict
  both constant and changing speeds

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Constant Speed
Time (s) Position (m)
0 0
1 6
2 12
3 18
4 24
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Changing Speed
Time (s) Position (m)
0 0
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16
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Instantaneous Speed

• Since a moving object often changes its speed
  during its motion, it is common to distinguish
  between the average speed and the instantaneous
  speed. The distinction is as follows
• Instantaneous Speed - speed at any given instant
  in time.
• Average Speed - average of all instantaneous
  speeds found simply by a distance/time ratio.

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Instantaneous Speed

• You might think of the instantaneous speed as the
  speed which the speedometer reads at any given
  instant in time and the average speed as the
  average of all the speedometer readings during
  the course of the trip.

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Average Speed

• As an object moves, it often undergoes changes in
  speed. For example, during an average trip to
  school, there are many changes in speed. Rather
  than the speedometer maintaining a steady
  reading, the needle constantly moves up and down
  to reflect the stopping and starting and the
  accelerating and decelerating. At one instant,
  the car may be moving at 50 mi/hr and at another
  instant, it may be stopped (i.e., 0 mi/hr). Yet
  during the course of the trip to school the
  person might average a speed of 25 mi/hr.

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Average Speed

• The instantaneous speed of an object is not to be
  confused with the average speed. Average speed is
  a measure of the distance traveled in a given
  period of time. Suppose that during your trip to
  school, you traveled a distance of 5 miles and
  the trip lasted 0.2 hours (12 minutes). The
  average speed of your car could be determined as

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Average Speed

• Average Speed Distance/Time
• Average Speed 5 miles/.2 hour
• Average Speed 25 miles/hour
• On the average, your car was moving with a speed
  of 25 miles per hour. During your trip, there may
  have been times that you were stopped and other
  times that your speedometer was reading 50 miles
  per hour yet on the average you were moving with
  a speed of 25 miles per hour.

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Average Speed Check

• While on vacation, Lisa Carr traveled a total
  distance of 400 miles. Her trip took 8 hours.
  What was her average speed? To compute her
  average speed, simply divide the distance of
  travel by the time of travel.
• Lisa Carr averaged a speed of 50 miles per hour.
  She may not have been traveling at a constant
  speed of 50 mi/hr. She undoubtedly, was stopped
  at some instant in time (perhaps for a bathroom
  break or for lunch) and she probably was going 65
  mi/hr at other instants in time. Yet, she
  averaged a speed of 50 miles per hour.

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Velocity

• Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to
  "the rate at which an object changes its
  position."
• Imagine a person moving one step forward and one
  step back. Because the person always returns to
  the original position, the motion would never
  result in a change in position. Since velocity is
  defined as the rate at which the position
  changes, this motion results in zero velocity.
• If a person in motion wishes to maximize his/her
  velocity, then that person must make every effort
  to maximize the amount that he/she is displaced
  from his/her original position. Every step must
  go into moving that person further from where
  he/she started. Heading in the opposite direction
  effectively begins to cancel whatever
  displacement there once was.

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Describing Velocity

• The task of describing the direction of the
  velocity vector is easy! The direction of the
  velocity vector is the same as the direction in
  which an object is moving. It does not matter
  whether the object is speeding up or slowing
  down, if the object is moving rightwards, then
  its velocity is described as being rightwards. If
  an object is moving downwards, then its velocity
  is described as being downwards. Thus an airplane
  moving towards the west with a speed of 300 mi/hr
  has a velocity of 300 mi/hr, west. Note that
  speed has no direction (it is a scalar) and that
  velocity is simply the speed with a direction.

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Terminal Velocity

• The terminal velocity of an object falling toward
  the earth, in non-vacuum, is the speed at which
  the gravitational force is pulling downwards and
  an opposing force is faced by the resistance of
  air (resistance) pushing upwards. 9.8 m/s2

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Acceleration

• Acceleration is a vector quantity which is
  defined as "the rate at which an object changes
  its velocity." An object is accelerating if it is
  changing its velocity.
• Sports announcers will occasionally say that a
  person is accelerating if he/she is moving fast.
  Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going
  fast. A person can be moving very fast, and still
  not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with
  changing how fast an object is moving. If an
  object is not changing its velocity, then the
  object is not accelerating.

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Strand C Force and Motion

• Non-contact forces magnetism/gravity
• Weight v. Mass
• Series Circuit connecting a circuit in a line
• Parallel Circuit divide the current among
  different devices

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Which is parallel? Which is series?
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Force

• A force is a push or pull. If an object
  accelerates (speeds up, slows down, or turns), a
  force is acting upon it.
• The total force felt by an object is called the
  net force.
• Some force are not visible (i.e. gravity,
  magnetism or earths gravitational field).

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Forces

• Balanced forces are two or more forces that
  cancel out each others effects and do not cause a
  change in motion. Net force equals zero.
• Unbalanced forces exceed zero and therefore cause
  motion.

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Newtons First Law of Motion

• Also know as Newtons law of inertia.
• An object will remain at rest or move with
  constant velocity until it is acted upon by a net
  force
• Difficult to prove because of friction.

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Friction

• The unbalanced force that brings nearly
  everything to a stop.
• The smoother the surface, the ?
• Static friction prevents an object from moving
  when force is applied (i.e. pushing something
  heavy or walking).
• Sliding friction slows an object that can slide
  (i.e. skidding tires, shuffling shoes).

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Friction

• Rolling friction needed to make a wheel turn.
  Rolling friction pushes back so that a tire can
  roll forward.
• Air resistance acts against the direction of
  motion and gets stronger as an object goes faster.

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Newtons Second Law of Motion

• An object acted upon by a net force will
  accelerate in the direction of the force
  according to the following equation
• Acceleration net force/mass
• a F net/m or F net ma
• Force is measured in Newtons (N)
• 1 N 1 kg . m/s2

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Newtons Third Law

• For every action, there is an equal and opposite
  reaction.
• While driving down the road, an unfortunate bug
  strikes the windshield of a bug. Quite obviously,
  this is a case of Newton's third law of motion.
  The bug hit the bus and the windshield hit the
  bus. Which of the two forces is greater the
  force on the bug or the force on the bus?

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• Rockets are unable to accelerate in space because
  ...
• a. there is no air in space for the rockets to
  push off of.
• b. there is no gravity is in space.
• c. there is no air resistance in space.
• d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space.

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A. Earths Shape
B. Earths Gravity
C. Earths Mountains
D. Earths Atmosphere
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You are Correct!
Why are A, B, and C not correct?
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Benchmarks SC.C.2.2.4, SC.C.2.2.2, SC.C.2.2.3
F. Ice Block
H. Sand Block
G. Sponge Block
I. Plastic Block
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You are Correct!
Why are G, H and I not correct?
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Strand D Processes that Shape the Earth

• Igneous Rocks formed when magma or lava cools
  and becomes solid.
• Sedimentary formed when sediment is pressed and
  cemented
• Metamorphic formed when rock have been changed
  over time with high pressure and temperature

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Strand D Processes that Shape the Earth

• Melting hot temperatures deep inside Earth melt
  rocks, forming magma
• Cooling and Hardening Magma that rises from
  deep inside earth cools and hardens into rock
  (both above/below surface).
• Weathering and Erosion breaks apart existing
  rocks, forming sediment. Erosion moves sediment.
• Compacting and Cementing Pressure compacts
  water between particles evaporates.
• Heat and Pressure melt and squeeze minerals
  changing the minerals or grain size.

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Rock Cycle
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Weathering Processes

• Mechanical Weathering process whereby rock
  physically break down into smaller pieces but do
  not change chemical composition.
• Chemical Weathering process whereby rock is
  broken down and chemical composition changes.

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Agents of Mechanical Weathering

• Ice Wedging water seeps into cracks or joints
  in rocks and freeze.
• Organic Activity Roots of plants and animals
  burrowing.
• Abrasion collision of rocks with one another
  because of gravity, running water, or wind

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Agents of Chemical Weathering

• Hydrolysis minerals chemically reacting with
  water. Minerals affected may be transported by
  water causing leaching.
• Carbonation minerals chemically reacting with
  carbonic acid (CO2 H2O)
• Stalactites on ceiling holding tight (tite)
• Stalagmites on ground might make it up

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Agents of Chemical Weathering

• Oxidation metallic minerals chemically reacting
  with oxygen causing oxidation.
• Acid Precipitation CO2 precipitation
• Plant acids weak acids produced by plants

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Rates of Weathering

• Rock Composition Quartz is least affected
  limestone is most affected.
• Amount of Exposure the more exposure the faster
  it will weather
• Climate Climates with much rainfall and
  freezing contribute most. Very hot or very cold
  little weathering. Moist/humid much weathering.
• Topography temperature/slope

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Continental Drift

• Theory stating that continents moved.
• Proposed by Alfred Wegener.
• Evidence included
• Identical fossil remains on the coast of South
  America and Africa
• Age and type of rock on the coastline
• Appalachian mountain chain
• Glacier debris in Africa and South America

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Pangaea
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Seafloor Spreading

• Suggested by Harry Hess.
• A break or rift in the earths crust allowing
  magma to go out.
• Ocean floor Paleomagnetism

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Plate tectonics

• Combines continental drift and seafloor spreading
  not only describes continental movement but
  proposes an explanation on why it moves.
• Two types of earths crust.
• Oceanic makes up the ocean floor.
• Continental makes up the continental landmasses.

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Lithospheric Plates
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Lithospheric Plates

• Lithosphere the rigid upper mantle of the
  earths crust.
• Divergent Boundary Plate moving apart.
• Convergent Boundary Plates moving toward each
  other.
• Subduction Zone
• Plate density
• Transform fault boundary Plate grind past each
  other.

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Convection Cells
This is the major theory on how lithospheric
plates move. In which direction is heat flowing?
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Earthquakes

• Caused by transform plate boundary movement.
• Aftershocks
• Focus is where the earthquake begins.
• Epicenter is the place directly above the focus.

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Seismic Waves

• Primary waves or P waves fastest and first to
  be recorded on a seismograph.
• Secondary waves or S waves second to be
  recorded on a seismograph.
• Surface waves or L waves slowest moving waves
  and last to be recorded.

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Locating an Earthquake
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Earthquake Measurement

• Richter scale measures the amount of energy
  released by an earthquake.
• Largest recorded was 9.6
• Mercalli scale measures the amount of damage an
  earthquake causes.
• Measured by Roman numerals I - XII

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Tsunamis

• A giant ocean wave usually caused by a major
  earthquake with its epicenter on the ocean floor.

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Earthquake Safety

• Before an earthquake, be prepared.
• During an earthquake, stay calm.
• After an earthquake, be cautious.

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Volcanism

• Any activity that includes the movement of magma
  toward or onto the surface of the earth.
• Magma versus lava.
• Vent opening through
  which molten rock flows.
• Volcano vent and
  volcanic material.

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Pacific Ring of Fire
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Hotspots
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Volcanic Cones

• Shield Cones broad, gentle sloping
• Cinder Cones steep slopes caused by explosive
  eruptions
• Composite or stratovolcano features of both

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Shield Cones
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Meteorology

• Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is a layer of gases and particles
  that surround the earth.
• Influences almost every living thing.
• Weather is the general condition of the
  atmosphere at a particular place and time.
• Climate is the general weather condition over
  many years.

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Composition of Atmosphere

• The most abundant elements in the air are the
  gases nitrogen (75), oxygen (24) and argon
  (1).
• The most abundant compounds in the air are the
  gases carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O).
• Ozone (O3) is found in the upper atmosphere. It
  absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.

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Atmospheric Pressure

• Gravity pulls the gases of the atmosphere toward
  the earths surface and holds them there.
• The ratio of the weight of the air to the area of
  the surface on which it presses is called
  atmospheric pressure.
• Since there is less air at higher altitudes,
  there is less weight pressing down. This explains
  why there is lower atmospheric pressure at higher
  altitudes.

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Barometer

• A barometer is an instrument that measures
  atmospheric pressure. Two types mercurial and
  aneroid. Miami averages 30 inches of Hg.

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Layers of the Atmosphere

• Four basic layers.
• Troposphere closest to the earth. Nearly all
  weather changes occur here.
• Stratosphere second layer from the earth. Most
  of the ozone is found here.
• Mesosphere known for its significant
  temperature drop.
• Thermosphere Last layer. Very thin air.

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Air Pollution

• Any substance in the atmosphere that is harmful
  to people, animals, plants or property is an air
  pollutant.
• Main source is the burning of fossil fuels.
• Gases emitted by the burning of fossil fuels form
  acids when combined with water in the air Acid
  Precipitation.
• International and federal intervention is needed.

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Solar Energy

• All the energy the earth receives from the sun
  travels through space between the earth and the
  sun as radiation.
• Light is a form of radiation we can however,
  there are many other forms that cannot be seen.
• The waves that make up all forms of radiation are
  called electromagnetic waves.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Scattering

• Water and dust suspended in the atmosphere
  reflect and bend the suns rays. As a result,
  sunlight comes from all directions.
• Short wavelengths (blue) are easier to scatter
  making the sky blue.
• Long wavelengths (red) are last to be scattered
  making the sun red at dawn/dusk.

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Reflection

• Of the total amount of solar energy reaching the
  earths atmosphere, about 20 is absorbed by the
  atmosphere.
• About 30 is scattered back into space or
  reflected by the clouds or surface.
• About 50 is absorbed by the surface.
• The different surfaces on earth vary their
  absorption and reflection rate.

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The Greenhouse Effect

• Gas molecules in the atmosphere trap heat energy
  and prevent it from escaping back into space. As
  a result the lower atmosphere becomes warm.
• Essentially, rays come in but cant get out.
• Similar to a vehicle on a hot day.

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The Greenhouse Effect
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Conduction and Convection

• Not all heating of the atmosphere comes from
  radiation.
• Conduction has particle to particle contact.
• Convection involves the movement of gases or
  liquids when they are heated unevenly.
• Cooler air sinks.
• Warmer air rises.

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Winds

• More solar energy at equator cause a belt of low
  pressure.
• The poles have colder, heavier air that tends to
  sink.
• Pressure differences in the atmosphere at the
  equator and at the poles create a general
  movement of air worldwide.

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Winds
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Breezes

• Gentle winds that extend over distances of less
  than 100 km are called breezes.
• Land surfaces heat up faster and cool more
  rapidly than water surfaces do.
• During the day, warm air above the land rises and
  the cool air above the water moves in to replace
  it.
• During the night, vice versa.

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Atmospheric Moisture

• The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is
  known as humidity.
• When the air holds all the water vapor it can, it
  is said to be saturated.
• The higher the temperature, the more water vapor
  it can hold.
• Relative Humidity compares the mass of water
  vapor in the air with the amount of water vapor
  the air can hold at that temperature.

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Atmospheric Moisture

• A psychrometer, hair hygrometer or electric
  hygrometer are instruments used to measure
  relative humidity.
• Specific humidity refers to the actual amount of
  water vapor in the air.
• The temperature to which air must be cooled to
  reach saturation is dew point. Any temperature
  below dew point will cause dew.
• If the dew point is below the freezing
  temperature of water, water vapor will change
  directly into solid ice crystals, or frost.

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Dew and frost.
Remember condensation and deposition?
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Clouds and Fog

• Clouds and fog are visible masses of tiny water
  or ice particles suspended in the atmosphere.
• Both originate from water vapor in the air.
• Not all clouds cause rain.
• Fog generally forms near the surface of the earth
  when air close to the ground is cooled.

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Clouds
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Fog
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Precipitation

• Any moisture that falls from the air to earths
  surface is called precipitation.
• Rain is liquid precipitation. Measured with rain
  gauge.
• Drizzle if lt .5 mm in diameter.
• Snow is the most common form of solid
  precipitation.
• Sleet is ice pellets that form when rain falls
  through a layer of freezing air.
• Hail is lumps of ice. Can be spherical or
  irregular.

132
Air Masses

• A large body of air with uniform temperature and
  moisture content is called an air mass.
• Air masses over polar regions are usually very
  cold and dry.
• Air masses over tropical regions are usually warm
  and moist.
• Air masses are classified according to their
  source region.

133
Fronts

• When two unlike air masses meet, density
  differences usually keep the two air masses
  separate.
• The boundary that forms between the two air
  masses is called a front.
• The kind of front that forms depends on how the
  air masses are moving.

134
Types of Fronts

• Cold front when a cold air mass overtakes a
  warm air mass.
• A long line of thunderstorms, called a squall
  line, may occur just ahead of a fast moving cold
  front.
• Warm front when a warm air mass overtakes a
  cooler air mass.
• Stationary front when two air masses meet and
  neither is displaced.
• Occluded front when a fast moving cold front
  overtakes a warm front, lifting the warm air
  completely off the ground.

135
Cyclones

• A severe tropical storm, with windspeeds starting
  at 120km/hr is called a hurricane.
• In the North Pacific they are called typhoons.
• A storm accompanied by thunder, lightning and
  strong winds is called a thunderstorm.
• A tornado is a whirling, funnel shaped cyclone.
• Tornadoes over the ocean are called waterspouts.

136
Weather Instruments

• Thermometer measure temperature.
• Anemometer measures wind speed.
• Wind vane determines wind direction.
• Radiosonde instrument package to investigate
  weather conditions in the upper atmosphere.
• Radar uses radio waves to detect precipitation
  and storms.
• Supercomputers store weather data, interpret
  data, and forecast.

137
A. Sandy flatlands
C. Underground caves
B. Offshore islands
D. Mangrove swamps
138
Congratulations,
You are correct!
Why are A, B and D not correct?
139
Which of the following did NOT cause the
formation of the Grand Canyon
F. Weathering
H. Water
G. Lava
I. Wind Erosion
140
You are correct!
141
Strand E Earth and Space

• Tides daily rise and fall of the oceans caused
  mainly by the moon
• Neap least extreme (happen twice a month)
• Spring most extreme (happen ?)

142
Astronomy is

• The study of the universe beyond earth
• One of the oldest branches of science
• Ancient Babylonians charted the positions of
  planets and stars 4,000 years ago.
• Modern astronomers use telescopes and other
  instruments.

143
Stars

• A star is a body of gases that gives off a
  tremendous amount of energy in the form of light
  and heat.
• Stars can vary in size, shape, and color.
• Distances between the stars and earth are
  measured in light-years a light year is the
  distance that light travels in one year.

144
Star Brightness

• Apparent Magnitude the brightness of a star as
  it appears from the earth
• Absolute Magnitude the true brightness of a
  star how bright the star would appear if it was
  seen from a distance of 32.6 light-years

145
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

• The H-R Diagram graphs the surface temperatures
  of stars against their absolute magnitudes
• Most stars are called Main-Sequence Stars,
  including the sun and other stars in the night
  sky
• Cool, large, bright stars are Giants or
  Supergiants
• Hot, small, dim stars are White Dwarfs

146
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
What scale is used here?
147
A Star is Born

• A star begins as a nebula, a cloud of gas and
  dust.
• The particles of gas and dust come together, and
  the nebula shrinks in size and begins to spin.
• The shrinking, spinning nebula flattens into a
  disk of matter called a protostar.
• When nuclear fusion occurs, a prostar begins to
  generate energy and is classified as a star.

148
The Life of a Star

• 1st Stage Nebula Protostar Star
• 2nd Stage Main Sequence Star
• 3rd Stage Giant/Supergiant
• 4th Stage White Dwarf
• 5th Stage Black Dwarf
• No Black Dwarfs exist yet

149
Star Terms

• A white dwarf which explodes, releasing energy,
  gas, and dust is a nova.
• A star that has tremendous energy and blows
  itself apart is called a supernova.
• A hole in space with gravity so great that not
  even light can escape is called a black hole. It
  is caused by the collapse of a large supernova.

150
Constellations

• Constellations are star patterns that occur in
  shifting, but fixed patterns.
• Constellations have been used to locate other
  stars in the sky or to guide travelers.
• Astronomers recognize 88 constellations
• Many are named after mythical creatures.

151
Constellations
152
Galaxies

• Galaxies are large-scale groups of stars bound
  together by gravitational attraction.
• Spiral Galaxies
• Elliptical Galaxies
• Irregular Galaxies
• The Sun is a star in the Milky Way Galaxy, a
  Spiral Galaxy.

153
Spiral Galaxy
154
Elliptical Galaxy
155
Irregular Galaxy
156
The Sun

• The center of the sun is the core and, like the
  rest of the sun, is made entirely of gas.
• The process of nuclear fusion, which creates the
  suns energy, occurs in the core.
• The core is surrounded by the radiative zone and
  the convective zone.

157
The Suns Atmosphere

• The photosphere (light sphere) is the innermost
  layer of the atmosphere and is often considered
  the surface of the sun.
• The chromosphere, or color sphere, appears to
  glow with a reddish light.
• The corona, the outermost layer of the
  atmosphere, prevents the atomic particles from
  the surface from escaping into space.

158
The Suns Composition
159
Solar Activity

• Sunspots are cool, dark areas of gas within the
  photosphere that are caused by powerful magnetic
  fields.
• Prominences are clouds of glowing gases which
  form huge arches reaching above the suns surface.

160
Solar Activity, cont.

• Solar flares are sudden outward eruptions of
  electrically charged atomic particles.
• Auroras are bands of light that appear in the sky
  after magnetic storms.

161
The Solar System

• Includes the sun and the bodies revolving around
  the sun.
• There are 9 major bodies, or planets, that orbit
  the sun.
• Copernicus suggested a heliocentric, or
  sun-centered universe, in the 1500s. Before, most
  people believed that the sun, planets, and
  stars orbited around the earth.

162
The Inner Planets

• Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the four
  planets closest to the sun and are known as the
  Inner, or Terrestrial, planets.
• All of these planets consist mostly of solid
  rock, with a metal core. These planets have no
  rings and a maximum of two moons.
• The inner planets have impact craters, which
  resulted from the collisions of the planets with
  objects made of rock.

163
Mercury

• Planet closest to sun
• Does not have any moons
• Probably has not changed much since the creation
  of the solar system
• Has a thin atmosphere because it is so close to
  the sun and so small
• Huge temperature range (-173C - 427C)

164
Venus

• Second planet from the sun
• Sometimes called the earths twin they are
  almost the same size, mass, and density.
• Average surface temperature is 435C too hot to
  support life
• May have been oceans and volcanoes on Venus
• Atmosphere is 96 CO2

165
Earth

• Fifth largest planet
• Has one moon
• Active Geologic History
• Only planet with known life
• Only planet with oceans abundant H2O
• Average surface temperature is 14C

166
Mars

• Has 2 moons
• Has similar rotation and seasons as the Earth
• Geologically Active Volcanic Activity
• Astronomers believe that Mars once had a warmer
  wetter climate

167
The Outer Planets

• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called
  the giant planets and are some of the largest in
  the solar system.
• Called the Jovian Planets
• Larger and more massive than the other planets,
  but they are far less dense
• Have thick atmosphere made of H2 and He gases
• Core of rock, metal, and H2O

168
Jupiter

• Largest planet in the solar system
• At least 16 moons and 1 ring
• Liquid metallic core
• Mostly made of gases
• Surface is marked by light- and dark-colored
  bands
• Great Red Spot giant rotating storm that has
  been raging for several hundred years

169
Saturn

• Has at least 20 moons and several rings
• Spins rapidly
• Has bands of colored clouds
• Less dense than Jupiter
• Has a very complex system of rings

170
Uranus

• Has at least 15 moons and 11 rings
• Unusual Rotation rotates like a rolling ball
• Greenish color indicates that atmosphere contains
  methane
• A core of rock and metals is at the
  center of this planet

171
Neptune

• Has 8 moons and possibly 4 rings
• Atmosphere made of helium, hydrogen, and methane
• Very active weather system
• Great Dark Spot An earth-sized storm is always
  visible in Neptunes atmosphere

172
Pluto

• Accidental Discovery
• No longer considered a planet Orbits sun in
  unusually elongated ellipse
• Made mostly of frozen methane, rock, and ice
• One moon Charon which is half as large as
  Pluto
• Pluto could have once been a moon of Neptune,
  based on its size, unusual orbit, and large moon.

173
Order of the Planets
174
Asteroids, Comets, Meteoroids

• Asteroids are fragments of rock that
  orbit the sun.
• A comet is a body of ice, rock, dust,
  methane, and ammonia which orbits
  the sun in a long ellipse.
• A meteoroid is a small bit of rock or metal that
  moves through the solar system
• A meteor is a meteoroid that enters the earths
  atmosphere.
• A meteorite is any part of a meteor that remains
  after it hits the earths surface.

175
Halleys Comet

• A short-period comet that last appeared in 1986.
  It will reappear in 2062.

176
The Moon

• A body that orbits a larger body is called a
  satellite.
• The moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
• The moons gravity is 1/6 less that on earth.
• The moon has no atmosphere and cannot support
  life.
• 6 Apollo Spacecraft have visited the moon.
• Temperature ranges from 170C to 134C.

177
Lunar Surface

• Highlands of light-colored rock.
• Dark areas of solidified lava are called maria
  they are the remains of volcanic eruptions.
• Long, deep channels called rilles run through the
  maria.

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Craters

• Craters are bowl-shaped depressions found on the
  surface of the moon. They were most likely
  created from debris that struck the moon.

180
Eclipses

• An eclipse occurs when one planetary body passes
  through the shadow of another.
• When the moon is between the earth and the sun,
  the shadow of the moon may fall upon the earth,
  causing a solar eclipse.
• A lunar eclipse occurs when then earth is
  positioned between the moon and the sun, and the
  earths shadow crosses the lighted half of the
  moon.

181
Strand E Earth and Space

• Solar Eclipse
• When moon passes between Earth and sun

182
Strand E Earth and Space

• Lunar Eclipse
• When Earth passes between sun and moon

183
Solar Eclipse
184
Lunar Eclipse
185
The Lunar Cycle

• For much of history, people were able to measure
  the passing of time by keeping track of the
  changing phases of the moon.
• Eventually, calendars were created to track the
  passing of time.

186
Days, Months, Years

• A day is the time required for the earth to make
  one rotation on its axis 24 hours.
• A lunar month is the time required for the moon
  to go through one cycle of phases as it orbits
  the earth 29.5 days.
• A solar year is the time required for the earth
  to make one orbit around the sun 365.24 days.

187
How do we get our seasons?
188
Strand E Earth and Space

• Satellite object that revolves around a larger
  object in space
• Moons are natural satellites
• Artificial satellites serve technological
  purposes
• Difference between probe and satellite?

189
F The shape of the orbit
G The closeness of Mars
H The presence of a moon
I The distance from the Sun
190
You are correct!
Why are F, G and H not correct?
191
Strand F Processes of Life

• Biology is the scientific study of living things.
  
• There are more than 2 million species of living
  things on the earth. They range in size from
  microscopic bacteria to huge blue whales and
  towering redwood trees.
• Living things also differ greatly in where and
  how they live.

192
Processes of Living Things

• Characteristics include made up of cells,
  reproduce, grow, obtain and use energy, and
  respond to the environment.
• Other characteristics may include need water,
  composed of many chemical substances and are
  highly organized, have a definite structure and
  size, have a definite life-span, show adaptation,
  evolve, or change, over long periods of time.

193
Levels of Organization

• Levels of organization
• Subatomic Particles -gt Atoms -gt Molecules -gt
  Cells -gt Tissues -gt Organs -gt Organ Systems -gt
  Organism -gt Population -gt Community -gt Ecosystem
  (Biome) -gt Biosphere

194
Levels of Organization

• Population the simplest grouping of organisms
  in nature (all the frogs in a pond).
• Community all the populations of different
  organisms within a given area (all the animals in
  the pond).
• Ecosystem (biome) geographic area that has a
  particular type of community (abiotic/biotic).
• Biosphere portion of the earth in which living
  things exist (lithosphere/hydrosphere/
  atmosphere).

195
Fields of Biology

• Traditionally, biology has been divided into two
  major fields. Botany deals with plants, and
  zoology with animals. Botany and zoology are
  further divided into various branches and
  specialized areas of study. But most branches of
  biology--for example, anatomy (the study of the
  structure of living things) and genetics (the
  study of heredity)--apply to both plants and
  animals.

196
Breaking it Down . . .

• Biology may also be divided into ecology,
  physiology, and systematics. Ecology deals with
  the relationships among living things and between
  organisms and their environment. Physiology
  concerns life functions, such as digestion and
  respiration. Systematics, also called taxonomy,
  is the scientific classification of plants and
  animals.

197
Why is Biology Important?

• Biological research has greatly affected people's
  lives. For example, farm production has soared as
  biologists have helped develop better varieties
  of plants and new agricultural techniques.
  Biologists also work in industry, especially the
  pharmaceutical and food industries.
  Biotechnologists develop new methods for the
  preparation of products using microorganisms.
  Discoveries in biology have enabled doctors to
  prevent, treat, or cure many diseases. Research
  on the relationships between living things and
  their environment has helped in the management
  of wildlife and other natural
  resources.

198
Prokaryote v. Eukaryote

• Prokaryote a single celled organism without a
  nucleus
• Eukaryote - a single-celled or multi-cellular
  organism whose cells contain a distinct
  membrane-bound nucleus.

199
Nutrition

• Autotrophs organisms that can make their own
  food. Can photosynthesize. Directly or indirectly
  produce food for heterotrophs.
• Heterotrophs Must obtain food.
• Herbivores feed on plants.
• Carnivores feed on animals
• Predators attack and kill prey
• Scavengers feed on dead animals they find
• Omnivores feed both on plants and animals
• Saprobes obtain nutrients by breaking down the
  remains of dead plants and animals. Bacteria and
  fungus fall into this group.

200
Changes over time

• Fossils physical remains of organisms.
• Natural selection the process of organisms to
  change over time.
• Adaptation a characteristic or trait that helps
  an organism survive in its environment.
• Genetic variation variety in offspring.
• Mutation greater variation or random changes.
• Extinction When the organisms die.
• Mass extinction many species die at one time.

201
Symbiotic Relationships

• Relationships in which two different organisms
  live in close association to the benefit of at
  least one of them.
• Mutualism both organisms benefit
• Commensalism one organism benefits, the
  other remains unaffected
• Parasitism one organism
  benefits, the other is harmed

202
Specializations

• Biology is such a broad subject that most
  biologists specialize in some area of study.
• Zoology study animals
• Marine Biology study life in the oceans
• Herpetologist study reptiles
• Ichthyologist study fish
• Microbiology study viruses
  and very small things.

203
Strand F Processes of Life

• Skeletal framework/support
• Muscular muscles/help things inside your body
  move (voluntary/involuntary)
• Digestive breaks down food into substances the
  body can use
• Excretory removes wastes
• Respiratory getting O2 into body
• Circulatory transports needed substances and
  carries away waste

204

• Nervous controls and coordinates the bodies
  activities
• Endocrine regulates the bodies activities by
  producing hormones
• Immune protects body against disease
• Reproductive system involved in creating a new
  organism

205

• Mitosis cell division/complete process of
  copying and dividing the whole cell
• Plant cell v. Animal cell Plant cells can have
  all the animal cells structures and a cell wall
  and chloroplasts.

206
What kind of cell is this?
207
Strand F Processes of Life

• Osmosis diffusion of water across a membrane
• Diffusion movement from an area of higher
  concentration to lesser concentration

208
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209

• Endoplasmic Reticulum makes proteins and
  transports materials
• Mitochondria transforms the energy from the
  food into a source cells can use powerhouse
• Nucleus contains cells DNA
• Ribosomes puts proteins together
• Golgi Bodies helps package and distribute
  products within the cell

210

• Cytoplasm gel-like fluid that takes up most of
  the space inside a cell
• Cell wall stiff outer barrier of plant cell
• Vacuoles holds waste products
• Cell membrane structure that surrounds the
  cytoplasm of a cell
• Nuclear membrane structure that surrounds the
  nucleus of a cell
• Chloroplast contains chlorophyll

211
Strand F Processes of Life

• Sexual Reproduction combining cells from two
  different parents (gametes)
• Asexual Reproduction one parent organism
• Traits inherited from parent
• Dominant allelle if present, determines trait
• Recessive allelle masked if dominant allelle is
  present

212
Strand F Processes of Life

• Genotype set of genes carried by an organism
• Phenotype physical appearance of an organism
• Homozygous TT or tt
• Heterozygous - Tt

213
Strand F Processes of Life

• Punnett Square used to predict what traits
  offspring will have

214

• Adaptations structures, behaviors, or other
  traits in an organism that help it to survive in
  its environment.
• Ie spiny leaves for cacti to reduce water loss
• Beak shapes for types of seeds available
• Normal differences within species is genetic
  variation.
• Random changes are mutations and can be harmful.
  Ie a brown polar bear.

215

• Fossils plant and animal
• Pangeae
• History of Earth

216
A bones
C heart
B ears
D lungs
217
You are Correct!
Why are A, B and D are not correct?
218
Strand G How Living Things Interact with their
Environment

• Virus microscopic particle that can infect the
  cells of an organism. They replicate themselves
  only by infecting a host cell.

219
Organism Classification

• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

220
Classification of Living Things

• Monera small, simple single prokaryotic cell
• bacteria, blue-green algae, and spirochetes
• Protista large, single eukaryotic cell
• protozoans and algae of various types
• Fungi multicellular filamentous form with
  specialized eukaryotic cells
• funguses, molds, mushrooms, yeasts, mildews, and
  smuts
• Plantae multicellular form with specialized
  eukaryotic cells do not have their own means of
  locomotion
• mosses, ferns, woody and non-woody flowering
  plants
• Animalia multicellular form with specialized
  eukaryotic cells have their own means of
  locomotion
• sponges, worms, insects, fish, amphibians,
  reptiles, birds, and mammals

221

• Biotic Factor living things or their materials
  that directly or indirectly affect an organism in
  its environment
• Abiotic Factor non-living physical/chemical
  factors which affect organisms in its environment
  (light, temperature, type of soil/rock, ph level,
  water availability, pollutants)

222
The Water Cycle

• The continuous movement of water from the earths
  atmosphere to the earths surface and back to the
  atmosphere again.
• Also known as hydrologic cycle.

223
Water Cycle Processes

• Evaporation process by which liquid water
  changes into water vapor (86 from ocean 14
  from freshwater sources).
• Transpiration process by which plants give off
  water vapor into the atmosphere.
• Evaportranspiration combined processes of
  evaporation and transpiration.

224
Water Cycle Processes

• Condensation expanding/cooling causing cloud
  formation.
• Precipitation process by which water falls from
  clouds to the earth (i.e. rain, snow, sleet,
  and/or hail). About 75 of precipitation lands on
  the ocean.

225

• Runoff water that flows over the land into
  streams and rivers.
• Groundwater water that soaks deep in soil and
  rock

226
Water Budget

• Continuous cycle of evapotranspiration,
  condensation and precipitation.
• Local water budget is usually not balanced.
• lt evapotranspiration gt precipitation flooding
• gt evapotranspiration lt precipitation drought

227
Water Conservation

• Water uses and increased demand.
• 90 of water used by cities/industries is
  returned as waste water.
• Water Conservation
• Finding other sources/Desalination (removing
  salts from ocean water).

228
The Water Cycle
229
The Oxygen Cycle

• Natural process that maintains the chemical
  balance of oxygen in the atmosphere.
• Animals, bacteria, plants, forest fires, burning
  of fuels (industry) consume oxygen.
• Land and ocean plants produce large quantities of
  oxygen during daylight.
• The oxygen content is in a state of balance.

230
The Oxygen Cycle
231
The Nitrogen Cycle

• This process maintains the amount of nitrogen in
  the atmosphere.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil and roots remove