HIST 3051

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HIST 3051 HISTORY OF TURKISH
REPUBLIC   BAHÇESEHIR UNIVERSITY 2007 Prof. Dr.
Zafer Toprak

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 Week I The Young Turks and the Unionists
Nationalist Response to Nationalisms The
Tanzimat Reforms The Young Ottomans - The Young
Turk Revolution of 1908 the Ottoman
Parliament   Tanzimat Genç Osmanlilar - Genç
JönTürkler 1908 Devrimi - Osmanli Ittihat ve
Terakki Cemiyeti Osmanli Parlamentosu Roderic
H. Davison, From Empire to Republic, 1909-1923,
in Turkey, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968, pp.
109-127. Feroz Ahmad, The Constitutional
Revolution, Reform, and War, 1908-1918, in
Turkey The Quest for Identity, Oxford
Oneworld, 2003, pp. 49-73.
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  Week II The Balkan Wars - The Great War
Balkan Savaslari I. Dünya Savasi Milli
Iktisat - Feminizm The Balkan Wars Word War I
The National Economy The Emancipation of
Woman  Zafer Toprak, The Family, Feminism, and
the State during the Young Turk Period,
1908-1918, in Première Rencontre Internationale
sur lEmpire Ottoman et la Turquie Moderne,
Istanbul-Paris, Éditions ISIS, 1991, s.
441-452. Zafer Toprak, Nationalism and Economics
in the Young Turk Era (1908-1918), in
Industrialisation, Communication et Rapports
Sociaux en Turquie et en Mediterranée
Orientale,(eds. Jacques Thobie et Salgur Kançal)
Paris LHarmattan, 1994, s. 260-266.
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Week III The Fall of the Ottoman Empire the
Armistice - The Sèvres Treaty Mütareke Sevr
Antlasmasi Erik J. Zürcher, The Second
Constitutional Period, chapter in Turkey A
Modern History, by Erik J. Zürcher, I.B.
Tauris, 1997, pp 97-137. A. L. Macfie, The
End of the Ottoman Empire, in The End of the
Ottoman Empire, 1908-1923, Longman, 1998, pp.
182-208.
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Week IV The Struggle for Independence - the
Lausanne Treaty Turkish Foreign Policy Milli
Mücadele Lozan Antlasmasi Türk Dis
Politikasi Erik J. Zürcher, The Struggle for
Independence, chapter in Turkey A Modern
History, by Erik J. Zürcher, I. B. Tauris, 1997,
pp 138-172. William Hale, Resistance,
Reconstruction and Diplomacy, 1918-39, chapter
in Turkish Foreign Policy 1774-2000, London
Frank Cass, 2002, pp. 44-78.
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Week V From Empire to Nation The Emergence of
Modern Turkey The Proclamation of the Republic -
The 1924 Constitution the Republican Peoples
Party Cumhuriyetin Ilani - 1924 Teskilat-i
Esasiye Kanunu Cumhuriyet Halk Firkasi
Partisi  Bernard Lewis, The Kemalist
Republic, chapter in The Emergence of Modern
Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1968, pp.
238-293.  Feroz Ahmad, The Kemalist Era,
1919-1938 in Turkey The Quest for Identity,
Oxford Oneworld, 2003, pp. 75-94.
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Week VI The Early Reforms Early Reforms - the
Legal Reception Movement - the Great Speech and
the Congress of 1927 the Opposition - the
Uprisings. Devrimler Hukuk Düzenlemeleri -
Nutuk (1927) ve 1927 Kongresi Muhalefet -
Ayaklanmalar  Erik J. Zürcher, The Kemalist
One-Party State, 1925-45, chapter in Turkey A
Modern History, by Erik J. Zürcher, I. B.
Tauris, 1997, pp 184-214 Dietrich Jung with
Wolfango Piccoli, National Resurrection The
early Turkish Republic, chapter in Turkey at the
Crossroads Ottoman Legacies and A Greater
Middle East, London New York Zed Books, 2001,
pp. 59-82.
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Week VII The Single-Party Era The 1931 and 1935
Congresses of the RPP The Liberal Opposition
New Cultural Institutions and Reforms Turkey on
the Eve of World War II. 1931 1935
Kurultaylari Serbest Firka Kemal Karpat, The
Establishment and Development of the Republic,
chapter in Turkeys Politics The Transition to
a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat,
Princeton University Press, 1959, pp
32-76. Donald Everett Webster, The Ideology of
Kamâlism, chapter in The Turkey of Atatürk
Social Process in the Turkish Reformation,
Philadelphia, The American Academy of Political
and Social Science, 1939, pp. 163-172.
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Week VIII The Cultural Revolution New Cultural
Institutions and Reforms Language Society
Historical Society Folk Houses Kültür Devrimi
Türk Dil Kurumu Türk Tarih Kurumu
Halkevleri Donald Everett Webster, The Party in
Politics, chapter in The Turkey of Atatürk
Social Process in the Turkish Reformation,
Philadelphia, The American Academy of Political
and Social Science, 1939, pp. 173-180. Donald
Everett Webster, Propaganda By Party and Other
Agencies, chapter in The Turkey of Atatürk
Social Process in the Turkish Reformation,
Philadelphia, The American Academy of Political
and Social Science, 1939, pp. 181-196.
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Week IX The National Economy and the Great
Depression 1923-1929 Izmir Economic Congress
National Economic Policy Great Depression Izmir
Iktisat Kongresi Milli Iktisat Büyük
Buhran Bent Hansen, Postwar Recovery, 1923-29,
chapter in The Political Economy of Poverty,
Equity, and Growth Egypt and Turkey, Oxford
University Press, 1991, pp. 312-318. Z. H.
Hershlag, The Economic Reconstruction Period,
chapter in Turkey The Challenge of Growth,
Leiden E.J.Brill, 1968, pp. 47-58.
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Week X Turkish Economy and Society in the
30s Economic Recession and Distress Economic
Planning in the 30s Sumerbank and
Etibank Ekonomik Durgunluk - Sanayi Planlari
Sümerbank Etibank Z. H. Hershlag, Origins of
Turkish Etatism, chapter in Turkey The
Challenge of Growth, Leiden E.J.Brill, 1968, pp.
61-76. Kemal Karpat, The Economic and Social
Transformation, chapter in Turkeys Politics
The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal
H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp
77-97.
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Week XI The Second World War Politics
National Chief and the RPP Turkish
Neutrality Milli Sef Tarafsizlik Kemal
Karpat, The Social Classes and Wartime
Developments, chapter in Turkeys Politics The
Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H.
Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp
98-133.   Kemal Karpat, Modern Turkey, chapter
in The Cambridge History of Islam, volume I,
edited by P.M. Hold, Ann K. S. Lambton Bernard
Lewis, Cambridge University Press, 1970, pp.
527-565.
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Week XII The Second World War War Economics
and Society War Economy and Inflation National
Defence Law the Capital Tax the Lot of the
Peasantry Savas Ekonomisi ve Enflasyon Millik
Korunma Kanunu Varlik Vergisi Toprak
Mahsulleri Vergisi - Köylülük  Bent Hansen, The
Etatist Experiment, 1929-50, chapter in The
Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth
Egypt and Turkey, Oxford University Press,
1991, pp. 319-336. Z. H. Hershlag, In Search of
Economic Policies, chapter in Turkey The
Challenge of Growth, Leiden E.J.Brill, 1968, pp.
131-142.
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Week  XIII The Coming of Political
Democracy The Land Reform The Democrat Party
The 1946 Elections Çiftçiyi Topraklandirma
Kanunu Demokrat Parti 1946 Seçimleri  Bernar
d Lewis, The Republic after Kemal, chapter in
The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford University
Press, 1968, pp. 294-319. Feroz Ahmad, Towards
Multi-Party Politics and Democracy, 1938-1960,
in Turkey The Quest for Identity, Oxford
Oneworld, 2003, pp. 75-94.
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The World History The Long 19th Century 1789
1914 The Short 20th Century 1914 1991 Turkish
20th Century - from 1908 onwards The First Part
(Seven Weeks)a) The Second Constitutional Era
1908-1920 Ikinci Mesrutiyet III The Turkish
Republic Türkiye Cumhuriyetib) The
Single-Party Era 1923-1946 The Second Part
(Seven Weeks) The Multi-Party Era 1946 -
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Periodization of Turkish History Young Turk Era
1908-1922 The Committee of Union and
Progress The Long Great War 1912-1922 Balkan
Wars World War I National Struggle Republican
s 1923 -1945 Republican Peoples Party The
Democrat Party 1946-1960 27 May 1960 The
Second Constitutional Period 1961-1980 The Third
Constitutional Period 1982 - 2006
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Intellectual Stages of Modernity in
Turkey Secularism - Çagdaslasma, Batililasma,
Muasirlasma, Asrîlesme, The Tanzimat Reformers
Resit Pasa, Ali Pasa, Fuat Pasa The Young
Ottomans Sinasi, Namik Kemal, Ali Suavi,
Mithat Pasa The Young Turks Ahmet Riza, Prens
Sabahattin, Abdullah Cevdet The Unionists The
CUP Committee of Union and ProgressTalat
Pasa, Enver Pasa, Cemal Pasa, Ziya Gökalp The
Republicans KemalistsMustafa Kemal Pasa,
Ismet Inönü, Celal Bayar
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Political Regimes in Turkey Systems of
Government I - Autocracy /Absolutist Monarchy
Mutlakiyetçi Monarsi Pre-Tanzimat Era
Tanzimat Era Post Tanzimat Era II -
Constitutional Monarchy Mesruti (Anayasal)
Monarsi a) The First Constitutional Era
1876-1878 b) The Second Constitutional Era
1908-1920 Ikinci Mesrutiyet Dönemi III The
Republican Regime Türkiye Cumhuriyeti a) The
Single-Party Era 1923-1945The Autoritarian
Modernity b) The Multi-Party Era 1946 -2006The
Political Democracy
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Political Regimes in Turkey Systems of
Government The Dynastic Period Devlet-i Al-i
Osman OttomansSultan Supreme Authority I -
Autocracy /Absolutist Monarchy Mutlakiyetçi
Monarsi a) The Classical Era 1299 1789
from Osman to Selim III Sögüt Bursa Edirne
Istanbul b) The Modern Era 1789-1822 Selim
III, Mahmut II, Abdülmecit, Abdülaziz, Abdülhamit
II, Mehmet Resat, Vahdettin
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I ) The Classical Era Social Strata The
Palace entourage Kapikulua) Seyfiye Army,
b) Kalemiye Primitive Bureaucracy, c) Ilmiye
Religious authorities The Reaya Peasantry
(Subjects of the Sultan)The Guilds Lonca and
Merchants Lack of middling strata (bourgeoisie)
Middle Class II ) The Modern Era The
Nation-State Process The Making of Ottoman
Middling Strata Middle ClassThe Emergence of
NationalismsThe liberterian Ideas Public
opinion Civil society The Emergence of Ottoman
Intelligentsia
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II - Constitutional Monarchy Mesruti
(Anayasal) Monarsia) The First Constitutional
Era 1876-1878 Birinci Mesrutiyet Dönemi The
First Constitution Kanun-i Esasi 1876 The
First Parliament Mebusan Meclisi Ayan Meclisi
1877-78 b) The Second Constitutional Era
1908-1920 Ikinci Mesrutiyet Dönemi III The
Turkish Republic Türkiye Cumhuriyetia) The
Single-Party Era 1923-1945b) The Multi-Party
Era 1946 -2006
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Emergence of Ottoman middling strata in the 19th
century The New Bureaucracy (Weberian type)
The Tanziman men The Tanzimat Edict Tanzimat
Fermani (1839) Rational, Professional Tanzimat
ReformsThe Centralization of the StateA Modern
State Apparatus Ministries etc.A Modern
ArmyNew Financial and Economic StructureNew
Legislations Codes borrowed from abroad New
generations trained in Secular High Schools Civil
Service Academy (Mülkiye Mektebi ) War Academy
(Harbiye Mektebi) Medical College (Tibbiye
Mektebi)
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The Young Turk Era in Turkish History
1908-1950 The Young Turk movement 1889 -
Ottoman patriotism Who are the Young Turks ? An
organized opposition of reformist Ottoman
patriots Against absolutist regime of Abdulhamid
II to reinstate constitution parliament to
propagate liberal and constitutional
ideas European circle - Ottoman
constitutionalists in exile Ahmed Riza - Ottoman
nationalist - Unionist Prens Sabahattin -
liberal, minimal government, free enterprise
Aptullah Cevdet - Westernist Congresses of
Ottoman liberal and reformists in Paris 1902
and 1907
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Young Turk Era 1908-1918 harbinger /
forerunner of Republican Turkey Fortells the
coming of a new regime / state Political
changes The burgeoning of secular
nation-state The rise of constitutionalism Basic
rights Citizens Socio-economic and cultural
changes The new economic policy Import
Substitution National Economy Secularization -
Emancipation of women
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The officers from the Third (Macedonian) and
Second (Edirne) armies coming from the lower
middle class 1906-1908 increasing discontent-
rising prices - payment of salaries was in
arrears Signs of discontent Strikes
small-scale uprisings Macedonian problem
Foreign control
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The elections 1908 Two-tier model Iki
dereceli seçim First electors Second
electors The CUP the Committee of Union and
Progress Ittihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti
Firkasi Mehmed Cavid, Finance minister in June
1909 Mehmed Talat, Interior minister in August
1909 - The Party of Ottoman Liberals Osmanli
Ahrar Firkasi splinter group which broke away
from CUP February 1910 The Party of Freedom
and Understanding November 1911 Hürriyet ve
Itilaf Firkasi The Ottoman Socialist
Party Osmanli Sosyalist Firkasi
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The Counter-revolution - April 1909 31 Mart
Vakasi a) Demand for the Restoration of the
Seriatb) The Dismissal of the cabinetc)
Seclusion of Muslim women liberated by the new
regime The Third Army and its Unionist
supporters denounced the mutiny as
unconstitutional Officers loyal to the
constitution organized The Action Army Hareket
Ordusu led by Mahmut Sevket Pasa set out from
Salonica to restore order in Istanbul punish
the mutineers
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Abdülhamit II toppled from power ratified by
the fetva, a legal opinion, issued by the
Seyhulislam the accession to sultanate of Mehmet
(V) Resat (65) The liberal and conservative
opponents of the CUP crushed Mahmut Sevket Pasa
dominant force virtual dictator of the new
regime Unionists his junior partners
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Serious blows struck at the new regime Bulgaria
declared its independence October
1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia
Herzegovina Crete announced its decision to unite
with Greece Uprisings Albania, Yemen (Imam
Yahya) The occupation of Tripolitania
Trablusgarp by Italy - 1911 The Balkan War
Balkan Harbi / Savasi - 1912-1913 1912
Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria - Ottoman
Empire
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The Treaty of London 1912 The Porte
surrendered Edirne to Bulgariaalong with all
territory west of de Erez-Midya line The
Istanbul Peace Agreement 1913between O.E. And
Bulgaria Eastern Thrace including Edirne
Dimotoka to O.E.Exchange of populatitions
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The Babiali Coup Babiali Baskini Mahmut
Sevket Pasa as Grand Vizier and War
Minister Unionist junior partners Mahmut
Sevket Pasa assasinated CUP monopoly of power
from 1913 onwards 1913 Constitutional
amendments Took away power from the sultan -
vested it in the legislature (parliament) and
the cabinet
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A program of political, social economic
reforms A) Military Reform - Reorganization of
the armyOlder officer corps purged B)
Administrative reform - Provincial administration
- decentralization (adem-i merkeziyet)
C) Abolition of the capitulations 1914 -
Unilateral Priviledges bestowed to foreigners
The Great War - The First World War Harb-i
Umumî Cihan Harbi Birinci Dünya Savasi
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• SECULARISM
• Secularization Laiklik
• A) Judicial System
• B) Educational System
• Emancipation of Women

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A) The Judicial Unification Tevhid-i Adalet
i) Removal of the Seyhülislam (highest
religious authority) from the cabinet (1916)
his jurisdiction limited ii) Religious courts
Seri Mahkemeler under the control of the
Ministry of Justiceiii) The Foundation of the
Ministry of Religious Foundations Evkaf
Nezareti B) The Educational
Unification Tevhid-i Tedrisat i) Religious
colleges (medrese)under the Ministry of
Education Maarif Nezareti ii) The modernization
of the Curricula of the higher medreses
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• C) Emancipation of Women
• Private sphere versus public sphere
• i) Law on inheritance, based on German code
  (1913)ii) Family law (the territory of the
  Seriat) Decree for Family Law - Hukuk-i Aile
  Nizamnamesi (1917)
• Uniformity of all Ottoman subjects a) Right to
  take initiative for divorceb) Marriages before
  a magistratec) Brides to be aged over 16

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Position of women Ideology The policy of
the CUP (state feminism) The effects of the
World War Lack of manpower compensated for by
women hastened the entry of women into the
labour market Women became visible Women took
part in social life Women appeared in public
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Women went to theatres and musical
performances Meetings - Speeches in nationalist
clubs Girls - the schooling system at different
levelsPrimary education compulsory for girls
(1913) Higher education - the teacher training
colleges Courses at the University (1914)
Inas Darülfünunu World War I The Ottoman
Society for the Employment of WomenOsmanli
Kadinlari Çalistirma Cemiyet to recruit women
for service in industry
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The Making of Civil Society The Concept of
Citizenry Law for the Associations Cemiyetler
Kanunu 1909 Philanthropic Communitarian -
Labour - Women associations Nationalist
organizations - Turkish Hearths Türk Ocaklari
1911 Committee of National Defence Milli Müdafaa
Cemiyeti (1913) - created a strong home
front - the Balkan War Participation in
politics Public OpinionPolitical game became
less elitistIt also became more brutal
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The Age of Ideologies 1914 - 1945 The Young
Turk Era Laboratory for Turkish
Republic 1913 a turnaround in the
ideological currents
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Stages of Turkish Nationalism a) First stage
The proto stage Cultural (literary and
linguistic) movement in the 19th century up
to 1908 Symbol Namik Kemal b) Second stage
The MetamorphosisEconomic and social movement
1908-1918 Ziya Gökalp c) Third stage - The
final stage Political movement 1919-1923 Mustafa
Kemal
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• Late comers Italy Germany - Turkey
• Similarity with German Stages after Ziya Gökalp
• First stage
• The proto stage Cultural (literary and
  linguistic) movement
• up to the 1840s
• Symbol Fiche
• b) Second stage The MetamorphosisEconomic and
  social movement up to 1870s
• List
• c) Third stage - The final stage
• Political movement German Unity
• Bismarck from 1870s

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STATISM - DEVLETÇILIK National Economy after
Friedrich List (German economist opponent of
classical economics) State economics (Devlet
iktisadiyati) a neo-mercantilist policy a
prototype of statism Insistence on economic
independence support for indigenous (local)
capital foreign capital exploitation
National credit institutions (milli banka)
Support for national bourgeoisie (millî
burjuvazi)
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From economic liberalism to national economy
Milli Iktisat) a) Free Trade imposed on Turkey
by capitulationsClassical liberal point of
view Removal of traditional barriers - guilds
New and modern legislation on transactions
ownership b) Institutions Chambers of
commerce (Ticaret Odalari) associations
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c) Labor Disputes Social unrest strikes
1908 Labour legislation 1909 - Legislation
on strikesBan on trades-unions and strikes
favoured entrepreneurs d) Agriculture a)
Property rights of the landowners b)
Modernization investment in agriculture
(irrigation projects infrastructural works
credit facilities)
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Modern Finances Modern Budget in 1909
prepared by Cavit Bey Minister of
Finances Unified and general budget Increase in
incomes inspection collection of taxes
Budget control through Parliament
Democracy
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National Economic Policy Balkan Wars - a
new era - to reliance upon internal strata Loss
of Salonica (1912) shift of political center
(CUP) to Istanbul The Rise of Nationalism
Statist and Neo-mercantilist Era State
Economics Devlet Iktisadiyati radical steps
liberalism challenged
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Economic liberalism low customs duties
jeopardized interests of the local producers
Complaint of the Muslim merchants unequal
competition by foreigners and non-Muslims due to
capitulations Old style, well-organized trade
corporations (petty producers) versus non-Muslim
mercantile interests Muslim-Turkish artisans and
merchants - backbone of the new nationalist
ideology The Rise of National Bourgeoisie
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Protectionalism Import Substitution Economic
nationalism neo-mercantilism or protectionism
versus liberalism and free trade comparative
advantages Liberal classical economics of
Adam Smith not universal suits industrialized
economy imperialistic policies Free trade
beneficial policy for England not for
Turkey Nation as an economic unity
(agriculture industry trade) A complete whole
Küll-i tam
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Import Substitution Home Product (Yerli
Mali) 1909 Bursa Exposition Bursa
Sergisi Austro-Hungarian Boycott 1908
Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina
Muslim boycott of 1913 National economic
policy Muslims to purchase from their
co-religious shopkeepers
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The Spirit of Industrialization Decree for the
Encouragement of Industry (1913)Tesvik-i Sanayi
Kanunu Joint-stock companies, indigenous
national milli cooperatives banking
institutions The Industrial census
1913-1915 Economic periodicals Sanayi Mecmuasi
Iktisadiyat Mecmuasi TheNational
Industrialists Society (Millî Fabrikacilar
Cemiyeti)
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War Economics The Great War (1914-1918)
Financial Economic Independence Capitulations
abolished in 1914 - Public Debts
postponed New customs tariffsspecific and
selective protective tariffs replacing
ad-volarem liberal tariffs protective
measures for the infant industries and local
products
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National market National economic policy
the motto of both CUP RPP Social basis of
National Liberation War (Milli Mücadele)
Employment of Muslims in economic financial
sectors Imperative language - Turkish in
business correspondence and official accounting

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Allocation mechanism Rationing (Iase) Kara
Kemal architect of the national economy
program founder of the Special Trade
Commission national joint-stock companies
Milli Sirketler The Ministry of Rationing
Iase Nezareti Creation of Muslim monopoly of
trade - capital accumulation
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Guilds encouraged to invest in national
companies Reversal of official policy CUP had
abolished the guilds Created trade associations
in their places Support for national
bourgeoisie capital accumulation by small
merchants of Muslim provincial origins Price
policy during WWIfavoring Anatolian large
farmers Accumulation for Agrarian bourgeoisie
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National Banking Institutions National Credit
Bank - Itibar-i Milli Bankasi (1917) Substitute
for the Ottoman Bank Merged with Is Bankasi in
1927 Local banking institutions in Anatolia
under the aegis of CUP local clubs Muslim
provincial notables moneyed men Support for
CUP policies Support for National Struggle
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FROM CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY TO REPUBLICTHE
INTERREGNUM1918 1923
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The Mudros Armistice 31 October 1918 (Mondros
Mütarekesi)The Congress of Erzurum 23 July
1919The Congress of Sivas 4 September 1919The
Treaty of Sevres 10 August 1920 The
National Pact (Misak-i Milli) 20 January 1920
The Lausanne Peace Treaty 24 July 1923
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The Mudros Armistice 31 October 1918
(Mondros Mütarekesi)25 articles amounted to
Ottoman capitulationMilitary occupation of the
straitsControl of railway and telegraph
linesDemobilization and disarmament except to
keep law and orderSurrender of Ottoman troops
in Arab provincesThe freeing of Entente POW
German Austrian military personnel (two
months)to leave
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Article 7 the most dangerous clauseThe
right to occupy any place if ... security ...
threatened Ottomans evacuated Musul -
Occupation of Mosul Article 24The right to
intervene militarily in the Armenian provinces
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The Congress of Erzurum 23 July 1919Society
for the Defence of Rights of Eastern Anatolia
Sarki Anadolu Müdafaa-i Hukuk CemiyetiRepresent
ative Committee Heyet-i TemsiliyeMustafa
Kemal Pasa its president The Congress
of Sivas 4 September 1919Society for the
Defence of the Rights of Anatolia and Thrace
Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti
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The Treaty of Sevres 10 August 1920 -
Severe terms imposed The O.E. Rump (remnant)
state in northern AnatoliaThrace and Izmir to
GreeceStraits internationalizedIndependent
Armenia created in eastern Anatolia- French
mandates in Syria Lebanon Palestine,
Transjordan, Iraq (Mosul) - British
mandatesSouth-western part of Anatolia to
ItalyKurdistan to receive autonomy right
to appeal for independence
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Elections Autumn 1919 for Istanbul
parliament Unionists in control Salvation of the
Fatherland Group ( Felâh-i Vatan Cemiyeti
) The National Pact (Misak-i Milli) 20
January 1920 Official fundamental statement of
the resistance movement based on the resolutions
in Erzurum and Sivas
63
The National Pact Misak-i Milli An
indivisible whole Territories inhabited by
Ottoman Muslim majority Arab territories -
plebiscite Kars, Ardahan and Batum
plebiscite Western Thrace - plebiscite Security
of Istanbul and Marmara Sea Economic, financial
and judicial independence No return to
capitulations
64
Turning Point Greek Occupation of Izmir (May
1919) Protests - Mass demonstrations - The
British occupation of Istanbul (16 March 1920)
to put pressure on the nationalists Administrati
on Allied Commissions of Control and
Organization Ottoman Parliament prorogued
itself in protest (2 April 1920)
65

The Peace Treaty of Lausanne Ankaras
proposal Izmir Hosts - Britain, France, Italy
and Greece Ankara Istanbul invited to send
delegations Grand vizier Ahmet Tevfik Pasa
suggested a joint delegation Furore in
Ankara Abolition of the Sultanate ( 1 November
1922) Vahdeddin fled the country / to Malta (17
November 1922) His cousin - Abdülmecit Efendi -
caliph, not a sultan
The last Ottoman
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Turkish delegation led by Ismet Inönü loyal and
dependable supporterRauf Orbay, known as an
Anglophile Conference - First Phase - 20
November 1922 Instruction to Inönü not to
deviate from National Pact Discussions extremely
difficult Diffirent perspectives of the two
sides The Entente victors of the Great
War Adjustment of the terms of Sevres Turkey
victors in the National Struggle Sevres Past
history
67
Turkey not considered equal partners in the
beginning Problems discussed three headings a)
Territorial and military b) Economic and
financial c) Position of foreigners and
minorities Exchange of population February
1923 - territorial problems solved(the border
in Thrace, the future of the straits) Mosul
question postponed Conference broke down
68
Second Phase - Reconvened - 23 April
1923 Greek and Turkish delegations solved their
problems. Small border correction in Thrace in
exchange for renouncing war reparations The
Entente insisted on economic and judicial
concessions in exchange for recognition of the
abolition of capitulations Complete sovereignty
of Turkish state Agreement reached on 17 July
1923 Treaty signed on 24 July 1923 Ratified on
21 August 1923
69
Turkey emerged as a sovereign state The Goals of
National Pact basically attained Capitulations
remained abolished No supervision over Turkish
judicial system Foreigners subject to the Turkish
courts Customs tariffs valid until 1929 Turkey
to honour all existing foreign concessions The
Straits zone internationalized under a commission
demilitarized / except for a garrison of up to
120.000 men in Istanbul
70
No mention of Armenia or Kurdistan Minorities,
Turkey bound itself to protect its citizens,
regardless of creed, nationality or language All
wartime reparation claims renounced Turkey
accepted an amnesty except 150 opponents of the
Nationalists Yüz Ellilikler
71
British troops left Istanbul 1 October 1923 10
years of continuous warfare 1912-1922 Depopulat
ed, impoverished in ruins Demography
Large-scale migration 1914 - 1924 Anatolian
population declined by 30 10 migration
20 warfare mortality 2.500.000 Anatolian Muslims
900.000 Greeks and Armenians
72
Populism - Solidarism Philosophy
Solidarism Political Ideology Populism
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CUP ideological framework of both CUP RPP
prerequisites of nation state Populism -
Halkçilik Solidarism - Tesanütçülük /
Dayanismacilik combination of German
national economy French solidarism
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Social Philosophy of CUP - New Life (Yeni
Hayat) Ziya Gökalp disciple of
Durkheim Solidarism - from Third French
Republic division of labour versus class
conflictDurkheim versus Marx National economy
market economy with advanced division of labor
organic solidarity (functional
interdependence) national coherence - unity
rather than plurality
75
Corporatist version of Solidarity Ziya Gökalp
1874 - 1924 Türkçülügün Esaslari The Principles
of Turkism 1923 Three Dicta / Saying 1. No
Individual but Society (Fert yok, Cemiyet
var) 2. No Classes but Professional Occupations
(Sinif yok, Esnaf var) 3. No Rights but Duties
(Hak yok, Vazife var)
76
No Classes But Occupational Groups (Sinif yok,
Esnaf var) Rejection of class conflict no
class tensions or economic egoism,
Corporatism MeslekçilikGuild economy
Guild socialism Occupational solidarity Small
Commodity Producers
77
Social Democratic version of Solidarity Economic
Ideology Tekin Alp Social Democracy influenc
ed by German national economy social
economy Inevitability of classes in a
capitalist system Advance in civilization
capitalist development Nationalism to
strengthen capitalism Economic development and
industrialization under state supervision
78
Friedrich List (German) National Economy
mentor of Unionist economists (Tekin
Alp) pioneer of protectionalism in Europe
Principles for economic redress in
Germany Emile Durkheim - (French) Division of
labour mentor of Unionist sociologists (Ziya
Gökalp) Mechanical solidarity - Organic
solidarity Ferdinand Tönnies (German )
Gökalps reconciliation Culture vesus
civilization ( Hars - medeniyet)
79
Culture vesus civilization ( Hars -
medeniyet) Barrowed from Ferdinand Tönnies
(German sociologist) Culture ( hars) set of
values and habits current within a community
Civilization (medeniyet) rational,
international system of knowledge, science and
technology
80
Social consequences of national capitalism
Speculation, blackmarket disparities in
income New wealth created in the countryside
Individual interests endangered public well
being Social unity necessitated sociology
a panacea remedy cure for Ottoman social
disintegration prescription solidarism as u
unifying principle
81
Populism - synonym of democracy to eradicate
social Darwinism install social
politics State interfered on behalf of
have-nots (poor people) Harp Zengini War
profiteer Harp Fakiri The New Path (Yeni
Istikamet) social revolution (içtimai
inkilab) based upon populism (halkçilik) State
acting as intermediary between public private
sectors
82

• CURRENTS
• Competing ideologies
• currents of thought
• not mutually exclusive
• Ottomanism (Ottoman nationalism / patriotism ) -
  Osmanlicilik
• Islamism (Traditional Modernist or Reformist) -
  Islamcilik
• Turkism -Turkish Nationalism - Türkçülük, Türk
  Milliyetçiligi

83
CURRENTS Competing ideologies Westernism -
Muasirlasmak, Avrupalilasmak, Asrilesmek Modern
vesion Çagdaslasmak Solidarism Tesanütçülük
(Dayanismacilik) Populism Halkçilik (Sosyal
Demokrasi) Corporatism Meslekçilik
(Korporatizm) Socialism Istirakiyyun
(Sosyalizm)
84
Ottomanism Millet Official ideology of the
State until 1922 union of the different
communities around the Ottoman throne 1908
Revolution New Vocabulary - Emergence of
citizen (Vatandas) - Conception of people
(Halk) - Invention of society (Cemiyet) -
Eulogizing individual (Fert Birey)
85
Constitutional Citizenship / Anayasal
Vatandaslik in 1876 Constitution A new
constitutional state mesruti monarsi / anayasal
monarsi Osmanli Vatandasi All subjects,
irrespective of creed (religion) or language or
raceconsidered as loyal citizens with equal
rights 1924 Constitution Türk vatandasi /
yurttasi
86
ISLAMISM Ümmet Community rather than Millet
Nation A - Regeneration on the basis of
Islamic practices Asr-i saadet B -
Solidarity within the Islamic community (Ümmet) /
Internationalism based on religion Modernist
Islam versus Traditionalist Islam Political
discourse Panislamism Political
unity Pan-Islamic current - Heyday during
Abdulhamits reign Only adoption of Western
techniques keeping Islamic values/culture
87
CUP Islamism Political expediency after
1913 1. Internal Loyalty of the Arabs 2.
External Support of Muslim colonies Holy war
(Cihad) declared in 1914 aiming at uniting the
world Muslims behind the Ottoman State Islamic
discourse during the National Liberation
War Political expediency to unite the
countryagainst The invaders non-Muslim
88
Islamic modernists or reformists a) Seriat -
compatible with modernity (Namik Kemal) Mecelle
as Civil Code b) Regeneration - Return to
Islamic values Ümmet (Islamic community) could
strengthen the Empire Sait Halim Pasa, Mehmet
Akif (Ersoy) Several leaders of the National
struggle Progressive Republican Party
Terakkiperver Firka wanted to keep the Khalifate
89
NATIONALISM Turkish Nationalism (a latecomer)
response to separatist nationalisms Last
nationalism in the Ottoman Empire Against
particularist goals of Greek, Serbian,
Bulgarians, Armenian, Arab Albanian Nationalisms

90
THREE TYPES OF TURKISH NATIONALISM I -
Expentionist Nationalism Pan Turkism Ethnic
Type II - Conservative Nationalism -
Turkism Religious type III Liberal Nationalism
Patriotism Cultural type
91
Variety of Turkish Nationalism -
I Expentionist Nationalism First Type up to
1918 Turkism / Pan-Turkism (Turkic / ethnic
type) Central Asia Turan (Originally)
Cultural bind Ultra-nationalists Political
ideology Union of Turkic peoples under Ottoman
flag
92
Variety of Turkish Nationalism -
II Conservative Nationalism Religiously
motivated Second Type 1919 -1923 Turkish
nationalism (Religious type) Anatolia
Islam To mobilize Anatolian people against
invaders Turkic Islamic cultures combined
93
Variety of Turkish Nationalism - III Liberal
Nationalism Patriotism Yurtseverlik Third
Type from 1924 Happy is he who calls himself
a Turk Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyene rather than Türk
Olana Opposed the idea of birth, blood, or
ethnicity Turkish nationalism (Secular type)
Anatolia secularity Cultural rather than Ethic
or Racial Binding Anatolian civilizations
western values
94
Pan-Turkism Expansinist Nationalism The
impact of the migrants Hüseyinzade Ali, Ahmet
Agaoglu, Yusuf Akçura (Üç Tarz-i Siyaset -
Three Types of policy - 1904) by Yusuf
Akçura Relative merits of Islamist, Ottomanist
and Turkist policies
95
Türk Ocagi (Turkish Hearth) Social and
cultural clubs Lectures, discussions,
theatrical and musical performances Türk Yurdu
(Turkish Homeland) Republican years influenced
by fascist regimes in Europe Tended to adopt the
docmatic, ethnic, and linguistic interpretation
of nationalism
96
Turkish nationalism (Third type) Moderate
Nationalism Patriotism concentrates on Anatolia
as the Turkish heartland intertwined with
populism Halka Dogru (Towards the people)
periodical (Istanbul 1913) organization
(Izmir - 1917) idealized the culture of the
Turkish peasant population (halkiyyat -
ethnography)
97
Ziya Gökalp Turkish nation had its own strong
culture National pride to be reconciled with
the adoption of European ways Islamic/Arabian
Byzantine medieval culture to be replaced with a
modern European one while holding on to Turkish
culture Criticism to men of Tanzimat joining
European civilization loss of touch with the
culture of their own people
98
Populism - Halkçilik to create national
solidarity to cure social tensions Peasantism -
(Köycülük) Support for peasantary Statism Suprem
acy of society over the individual Prototype of
Social Democracy
99
State versus Civil Society CUP officially
supported Ottomanism The urgent question How
to bring about a synthesis of European elements
with Ottoman values. Two Currents Centralist
State / Society Ziya Gökalp Decentralist
Individual Prens Sabahattin
100
Unionist Young Turks Revolutionary changes
Ziya Gökalp The Committee of Union and
Progress Ittihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti /
Firkasi Emphasis on state A Centralization B
National Economy and State Economics State
is the logical and only means to achieve change
101
Liberal Young Turks Evolutionary changes
Prens Sabahattin The Party of Freedom and
Understanding Hürriyet ve Itilaf
Firkasi Emphasis on society / individual rather
than state A- Decentralization B - Private
Initiative and Liberal economics
102
WESTERNISM Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Cultural and
civilizational change Adoption of European
techniques ideas way of life Young Turk
Proponent Dr. Abdullah Cevdet Ictihad
(periodical) discarding traditional Ottoman
civilization adopting the European ways in
totality
103
Turkey in 1923
104
Army recruitment peasant population Fronts in
four corners Caucasus, Gallipoli, Palestine,
Mesopotamia, Galicia Eastern Anatolia
War theater 1915 Shortage of labor in
agriculture / labor brigades
105
Suffering retreating armies Armenian/
Orthodox Anatolian delocation /
deportation Disruption of infrastructure /
Railways, buildings etc. Famine / Infectious
deseases Fatal Epidemic Deseases /
Pestilence Independence War Retreating and
fleeing Greek forces advancing Turkish troops
106
High mortality rate due to Warfare Delocations
/ Deportations Atrocities Famine
Epidemics Epidemics Cholera Typhoid In
12 provinces Widows among women exceeded 30
107
Migration War with Russia (1878) 93 Harbi
Balkan War of 1912-13 Muslim refugees
100.000s. During and after Great War Armenians
migrated to Soviet Union, France USA -
100.000s - Greeks from Western Anatolia
108
Treaty of Lausanne Remainder of the Rum
Orthodox 900.000 Muslim from Greece
400.000 Net loss of population of Anatolia
between 1912-1922 From 17 to 12 million /
productive human capital Ruralization Depopulatio
n of cities 25 to 18
109
Ethnic Structure Anatolia 80 Muslim in
1914 98 Muslim in 1924 Armenians
65.000 Greeks 120.000
110
Economic structure Havoc (damage-destruction)
wrought by wars Physical damages Railways
bridges Izmir devastated by fire -
1922 Exodus of entrepreneurs and
managers Stock of industrial and commercial
know-how International trade 1/3 of pre-war
level
111
Agriculture recuperated quickly GNP to reach
1914 1930s Ottoman Public Debts German
War debts 170 million pounds written off Ottoman
Debts consolidated Apportioned to the successor
states or territories 65 Turkey
112
End of Part 1