RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

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RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

• 1. Introduction
• 2. Ways of Knowing
• 3. Goals of Research
• 4. The Scientific Method
• 5. Research Settings
• 6. Research Methods
• 1. Descriptive/Correlational
• 2. Experimental
• 7. Theory in Science
• 8. Research Ethics

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Ways of Knowing

• Tenacity (Faith)
• Authority
• Consensus
• Reason
• Observation

3
Goals of Research

• To understand human behaviour
• Describe
• Identify and classify regularly occurring
  sequence of events
• Explain
• Suggest why events occurred.
• Predict
• Find regularities and predictable relationships
  that exist between variables
• Control
• Regulate the occurrence of the phenomenon

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The Scientific Method

• Observation and Discovery
• Exploration of a phenomenon which helps to
  generate hypotheses.
• Demonstration
• Gather data to demonstrate, confirm, or support
  the hypothesis.
• Refutation
• Gather data to refute, disconfirm, reject a
  hypothesis.
• Replication
• Repeat the study to examine generalizability,
  understand contrary evidence, etc.

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Research Settings

• Laboratory Studies
• Field Studies

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Descriptive/Correlational Methods

• Goals
• 1. systematically describe social behaviour
• 2. systematically describe relations between
  variables.
• Some types of descriptive/correlational methods
  include
• 1. Observation studies
• 2. Archival studies
• 3. Survey studies

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Descriptive/Correlational Methods, cont.

• Observational Studies
• Obtrusiveness (Natural Observation to Participant
  Observation)

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Descriptive/Correlational Methods, cont.

• Archival Studies
• Archival analysis is a form of the observational
  method whereby the researcher examines the
  accumulated documents, or archives of a culture
  (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and
  newspapers).
• Inter-judge reliability is the level of agreement
  between two or more people who independently
  observe and code a set of data.

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Descriptive/Correlational Methods, cont.

• Survey Studies
• Verbal (self-) reports
• Types include
• Written questionnaire
• Personal interview
• Telephone interview

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Descriptive Statistics

• Central Tendency
• Mean
• Median
• Variability
• Standard deviation

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Correlation

• Correlation Coefficient
• A measurement of the degree to which two
  variables are related. Ranges from 1.00 to
  1.00.
• Scatterplot
• A graphic representation of a correlation one
  value is plotted against the horizontal axis and
  the other against the vertical axis.

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Causation

• Covariation
• The presumed cause (X) and effect (Y) are related
  to each other.
• Temporal precedence
• The X occurred before the resumed effect Y
• Third variable
• The relationship between X and Y is not explained
  by the presence of other plausible causal agents.

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Experimental Methods

• Independent Variable
• The factor that is systematically manipulated so
  that the researcher can examine its effect on a
  dependent variable.

• Dependent Variable
• The variable (usually a behaviour) that is
  affected by the independent variable.

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Experimental Methods, continued

• Random selection or random sampling
• Every person in a given population has an equal
  chance of being selected for the sample
• Random assignment to condition
• All participants have an equal chance of taking
  part in any condition of an experiment.

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Experimental Methods, continued

• An operational definition is the specification of
  how variables are measured, or manipulated.
• Construct Validity
• The degree to which both the independent and
  dependent variables accurately reflect or measure
  the constructs of interest.

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Experimental Methods, cont.

• Internal Validity
• The extent to which conclusions can be drawn
  about the causal effects of one variable on
  another.
• See also experimental realism

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Experimental Methods, cont.

• External Validity
• The extent to which the results of a study can be
  generalized to the larger context
• Generalizability across situations
• Generalizability across people
• Generalizability across cultures
• See also mundane realism

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Inferential Statistics

• Statistical Significance
• The likelihood that an observed relation or
  difference between two variables is not due to
  chance factors.
• Probability level (p-value) a numerical
  indicator of how likely it is that the results of
  an experiment occurred by chance and not because
  of the independent variable (p lt .05 means that
  there is less than a 5 in 100 probability that
  the results may be due to chance.)

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Bias in Psychological Research

• Random Error
• Causes random variability in DV
• Systematic Error or Bias
• Causes nonrandom variability in DV other than
  that caused by the IV.

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Types of Bias

• Sample Bias
• Measurement Bias
• Observers (Researchers) Bias
• Subjects Bias

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Sample and Measurement Biases

• Sample Biases
• Random assignment

• Measurement Biases
• Validity
• Reliability

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Observers and Subjects Biases

• Observer-Expectancy Effects (experimenter/Rosenth
  al effect)
• Subject-Expectancy Effects (demand
  characteristics)
• Preventing Biases
• Single-blind study
• Double-blind study
• Placebo

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What is a Theory(and Related Constructs)?

• 1. Construct
• A symbol or an analogy of an observable
  phenomenon.
• 2. Model
• A constructed representation of a part of the
  universe.
• 3. Theory
• A theory attempts to explain a phenomenon. It
  contains constructs of that phenomenon and
  describes the relations among these constructs.
  It incorporates relations between the theoretical
  constructs and observable variables that can be
  used to measure those constructs.
• A theory is not necessarily supported by research
  findings. Theories are usually partial,
  incomplete explanations of a phenomenon, subject
  to expansion and revision. (Continued next
  slide)

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What is a Theory (Continued)

• 4. Hypothesis
• A simple declarative statement derived from a
  theory, usually regarding the nature of a
  construct and/or its relation to other constructs.

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CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

• 1. Comprehensiveness
• Explains a wide range of phenomena
• 2. Internal Consistency
• Propositions and assumptions are consistent and
  fit together in a coherent manner.
• 3. Parsimony
• Contains only those concepts and assumptions
  essential for the explanation of a phenomenon.
• 4. Testability
• Concepts and relational statements are precise.
• (Continued next slide)

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Criteria for Evaluating Scientific Theories
(Continued)

• 5. Empirical Validity
• Holds up when tested in the real world.
• 6. Heuristic Value
• Stimulates thinking and research.
• 7. Applied Value
• Helps solve problems in the real world.

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Ethics

• Informed Consent
• Risks and Benefits
• Deception
• Privacy, Confidentiality, and Anonymity
• Special Groups

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Informed Consent

• A description of the study should be provided in
  advance, including mention of the purpose of
  the research expected benefits of the research
  methods (tasks to be performed) any effects,
  risks or inconveniences of the procedure rights
  of the participant and any possible alternative
  procedures.

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Risks and Benefits

• Protection from harm
• The onus is on the researcher to avoid or
  minimize risks to the subjects, both in carrying
  out the research and in publication of the
  results.

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Deception

• Deception is a situation in which subjects have
  essential information withheld and/or are
  intentionally misled about procedures and
  purposes.
• A thorough debriefing is particularly important
  in studies involving deception.

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Privacy, Confidentiality and Anonymity

• Right to privacy
• Personal information given by the subject will be
  confidential. Wherever possible, the researcher
  will take steps to ensure the anonymity of the
  subjects.

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Vulnerable Groups

• Special care must be taken with vulnerable groups
  to ensure ethical treatment (e.g., prisoners,
  people with mental disabilities, other cultures,
  etc.)