KINGDOM MONERA

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KINGDOM MONERA

• The Prokaryotes
• Archaebacteria and Eubacteria

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Characteristics of Bacteria

• Prokaryote means before a nucleus. They are
  single-celled organisms and the smallest,
  simplest organisms.
• This kingdom is subdivided into two kingdoms
• Archaebacteria
• Eubacteria

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• i. Archaebacteria achaio comes from the
  Greek means ancient. Found in anaerobic
  conditions with high salt concentrations, high
  temperatures and a low pH.
• ii. Eubacteria This group includes the true
  bacteria and is the largest and most successful
  of the two kingdoms.

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• Bacteria all share these five characteristics
• -All bacteria are single-celled
• -All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their DNA is not
  surrounded by a membrane.
• -Cell organelles in bacteria are not surrounded
  by membranes.
• -The DNA of bacteria is made of a single
  chromosome.
• - Bacteria are the smallest organisms measuring
  from 1-10 micrometres.

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Kingdom Eubacteria

• Unicellular (single-cell)
• Prokaryotes (no membrane-bound organelles)
• Cell Walls contain peptidoglycan, not cellulose

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• It contains a cell wall that provides support and
  protection for the contents of the cell.
• The cytoplasm contains ribosomes, responsible for
  the formation of proteins and DNA.
• The DNA forms a single chromosome and forms a
  ring.
• Some bacteria have a flagella that act like
  propellers moving the organism forward.
• Bacteria are classified by their shape, reaction
  to being stained, nutrition and respiration.

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Shape of Eubacteria
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Bacterial Cell Shape

• Bacteria can be classified by shape.
• -A spherical cell is called a coccus (pl. cocci)
• -A rod-shaped cell is called a bacillus (pl.
  bacilli)
• -A spiral-shaped cell is called a spirillum (pl.
  spirilla)

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• Cocci living as separate cells are called
  monococci, pairs are called diplococci, chains
  are called streptococci, and grapelike clusters
  are called staphlococci.
• Bacilli also exist as single cells, pairs
  (diplobacilli), or chains (streptobacilli).
• Spiral bacteria exist only as single cells.
• Staining bacteria results in two forms
  gram-positive (purple) vs. gram negative (pink).

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Grouping

• Diplo- Pairs
• Streptos- Chains
• Staphylo- Clusters

http//genome.microbio.uab.edu/strep/info/strep5.g
if
http//library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00520/gallery/
thumbnails/thumb_diplococcus.jpg
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• These are the general shapes

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Examples of Spherical-shaped cells Coccus (sng)
, cocci (pl)
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Coccus
http//www.uleth.ca/bio/bio1010/Coccus1.jpg
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A Group of Two is referred to as Diplo.. This
is diplococccus
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A Cluster of cells is referred to as Staphylo.
This is Staphylococcus
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What a slide of Typical coccus looks like in a
microscope.
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Streptococcus aurelius
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Strep Throat
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Staph Infection
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Rod-shaped cells Bacillus (sng) , Bacilli (pl)
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Typical Bacillus
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Bacillus
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Typical Bacillus in a Microscope
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Spiral-shaped cells Spirillum (sng) , Spirlli
(pl)
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Spirochetes
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Struktur dan Fungsi Utama Sel Bakteri
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Struktur Utama Bakteri

• Membran Plasma
• tersusun atas fosfolipid dan protein, bersifat
  semipermeable.
• Dinding Sel
• tersusun atas mukopolisakarida dan peptidoglikan
  (protein dan polisakarida)
• Sitoplasma
• tersusun atas air, asam nukleat, protein,
  karbohidrat, lemak.

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• Ribosome
• sintesis protein
• DNA
• materi genetik
• Granula penyimpanan

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Struktur Tambahan Bakteri

• Kapsul
• tersusun atas polisakarida dan air yang
  berfungsi untuk membantu melekat pada permukaan
  sel bakteri lainnya. Cth Streptococcus mutans
• Pertahanan bakteri
• Flagellum
• Monotrik flagellum pada bakteri berjumlah
  satu
• Lofotrik flagella pada satu sisi
• Amfitrik flagella atau flagellum di kedua
  ujung
• Peritrik flagella tersebar di seluruh
  permukaan sel

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Struktur Tambahan Bakteri

• Klorosom
• pigmen klorofil untuk proses fotosintesis. Cth
  Chlorobium.
• Vakuola Gas
• terdapat pada bakteri yang hidup di air dan
  melakukan fotosintesis.
• Endospora
• bentuk istirahat/laten bakteri. Cth Bacillus
  antracis, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium
  botulinum

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Life Cycle
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Bakteri Heterotrof

• Bakteri Saprofit
• bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari sisa
  organisme lain cth Eschericia colli,
  Lactobacillus bulgaricus
• Bakteri Parasit
• bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari inangnya.
  Inang tempat hidup bakteri adalah tumbuhan, hewan
  atau manusia.
• Cth Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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Bakteri Autotrof

• Auto diri, trophos memakan
• Bakteri yang mampu membuat makanan sendiri.
• Bakteri Fotoautotrof
• bakteri yang menggunakan energi cahaya matahari
  untuk membuat makanannya. Cth Thiocytstis sp.
• Bakteri Kemoautotrof
• menggunakan energi kimia (proses oksidasi
  senyawa anorganik) untuk mensintesis makanannya.
  Cth Nitrosomonas dan Nitrosococcus

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Nutrition

• Most eubacteria are heterotrophs and obtain
  energy by breaking down organic molecules from
  their environment. Some are parasites, absorbing
  nutrients from living organisms. Others are
  saprobes, decomposing dead organic matter.

Mode of nutrition Energy Source Carbon Source
Photoautotroph Light Carbon Dioxide
Chemoautotroph Inorganic Chemicals Carbon Dioxide
Photoheterotroph Light Organic Compounds
Chemoheterotroph Organic Compounds Organic Compounds
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Bakteri Aerob

• Membutuhkan oksigen bebas untuk memperoleh
  energinya. Cth Nitrosomonas, Nitrosoccus.
• Nitrosomonas amonia nitrit
• Nitrobacter nitrit - nitrat

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Bakteri Anaerob

• Tidak Membutuhkan oksigen bebas untuk memperoleh
  energinya. Energi yang diperoleh bersumber dari
  fermentasi.
• Bakteri Anerob Obligat
• hanya dapat hidup jika tidak ada oksigen. Cth
  Clostridium botulinum
• Bakteri Anaerob Fakultatif
• dapat hidup jika ada oksigen maupun tidak ada
  oksigen. Cth Eschericia colli

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Respiration

• If respiration requires oxygen, bacteria are
  termed aerobes. If oxygen is absolutely necessary
  for survival they are called obligate aerobes.
• Bacteria that carry out respiration without
  oxygen are called anaerobes. Presence of oxygen
  kills some bacteria and these are called obligate
  anaerobes. (example- Clostridium botulinum)
• Another group of bacteria can survive with or
  without oxygen and they are called facultative
  anaerobes.

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Gram Stain

• A staining method to differentiate bacteria
• Gram-negative refers to the inability to retain
  the deep violet dye
• Gram-positive refers to the ability to retain the
  deep violet dye

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Bakteri berdasarkan Lap.Peptidoglikan pada
Dinding Sel

• Bakteri gram positif
• (dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang
  tebal, berwarna ungu). Cth Neisseria
  gonorrhoeae, Treponema pallidum, Vibrio cholerae
• Bakteri gram negatif
• (dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang
  tipis, berwarna merah muda). Cth Streptococcus
  mutans, Eschericia coli.

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Gram Staining
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Gram Negative cells
Gram Positive Cells
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Bacteria Photos
Clostridium perfringes
Anthrax
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Bacteria Photos
E. coli
Clostridium tetani
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Bacteria Photos
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Staphylococcus aureus
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Bacteria Photos
Strep
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Reproduction
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Reproduction 1. By binary fission
a bacterium may undergo fission every
10-20 minutes 2. Conjugation
part of a chromosome is transferred from
donor cell to recipient through pilus
3. Transformation living
cell picks up fragments of DNA released by dead
cells 4. Transduction
fragments of DNA carried from one cell to
another by viruses
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1 Asexual Reproduction

• Binary Fission cells grow in size the split in
  two. Genetically identical

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2 Sexual Reproduction (exchanging DNA) a.
Conjugation

• two bacteria join together and exchange portions
  of DNA. Ex E.colli

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b. Transformation

• DNA is taken in by a bacterium, and then used.

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Transduction

• DNA is transferred to a bacterium by a virus.

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Endospores

• When environmental factors become harsh, bacteria
  will either die or form endospores.
• If bacteria have time, if the environmental
  changes are slow enough, they usually form
  endospores.

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• When growth conditions become extremely
  unfavourable, many bacteria form structures
  called endospores.
• Endospores are DNA and a small amount of
  cytoplasm enclosed in a tough cell wall. They
  are resistant to extremes in temperature, drying,
  and harsh chemicals.

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• Advantages
• Widely dispersed populations can still reproduce.
  
• Cells are identical to parents and should survive
  well if conditions don't change.
• Disadvantages
• Cells are identical to parents and so are
  vulnerable to the same environmental stresses.
• The characteristics of the cells change very
  slowly
• there is very little innovation in survival
  strategies.
• Unchanging cells may be slow to take advantage of
  new energy sources.

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Classification of Eubacteria
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Proteobacteria

• Proteobacteria bersifat fotoautotrof (bakteri
  ungu) memiliki klorofil, beberapa spesies
  merupakan anaerob obligat, hidup di endapan
  kolam, danau atau lumpur. Cth Chromatin
• Proteobacteria bersifat kemoheterotrof
• Cth Rhizobium, E.Colli

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Cyanobacteria

• Ganggang hijau biru berlendir
• Lendir berfungsi membantu gerakan secara meluncur
• Ukuran 1-60 miikrometer
• Hidup soliter
• Pigmen tambahan fikosianin (biru), fikoeritrin
  (merah)
• Memiliki vakuola gas, fotoautotrof menghasilkan
  O2
• Sexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction pembelahan biner,
  fragmentasi dan pembentukan spora (akinet)
• Ex Nostoc bersimbiosis dengan jamur lumut
  kerak (lichenes)
• Anabaena azollae hidup di daun
  tumbuhan paku air Azolla pinata

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Cyanobacteria

• are photosynthetic autotrophs that produce
  carbohydrates and oxygen
• tend to cling together in chains or colonies
• contain enzymes that allow them to fix
  atmospheric nitrogen

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http//www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/gr
aphics/mader07b/online_vrl/images/0510l.jpg
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Filamentous Chain of cells

http//www.spea.indiana.edu/joneswi/e455/Anabaena.
jpg
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Oscillatoria
http//botit.botany.wisc.edu16080/images/130/Bact
eria/Cyanobacteria/Oscillatoria/Oscillatoria_MC.jp
g
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Anabaena
_ http//www.bio.mtu.edu/jkoyadom/algae_webpage/A
LGAL_IMAGES/cyanobacteria/Anabaena_jason_dbtow17
2016.jpg
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Some filamentous cyanobacteria have Heterocysts,
which are Nitrogen-fixing structures
http//www.people.vcu.edu/elhaij/IntroBioinf/Scen
arios/heterocyst2.JPG
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Spirochetes

• Berbentuk spiral dengan panjang 5-250 mikrometer
• Bakteri gram negatif
• Ukuran 5-250 miikrometer
• Memiliki filamen aksial
• Habitat lumpur, air
• Sexual reproduction
• Treponema pallidum

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Archaebacteria
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• Methanogens
• These Archebacteria are anaerobes. They make
  methane (natural gas) as a waste product. They
  are found in swamp sediments, sewage, and in
  buried landfills. In the future, they could be
  used to produce methane as a byproduct of sewage
  treatment or landfill operation.

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Methanogen

• H2 digunakan untuk mereduksi CO2 menjadi metana
  (CH4)
• Bakteri anaerob
• Habitat lumpur dan rawa
• Berperan sebagai pengurai
• Beberapa species bakteri metanogen hidup di
  lingkungan anerobik di dalam perut hewan

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• Halophiles
• These are salt-loving Archaebacteria that grow
  in salt ponds. Large numbers of certain
  halophiles can turn these waters a dark pink.
  Pink halophiles contain a pigment very similar to
  the rhodopsin in the human retina. They use this
  visual pigment for a type of photosynthesis that
  does not produce oxygen. Halophiles are aerobes.

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Extreme halophiles can live in extremely salty
environments. Most are photosynthetic autotrophs.
The photosynthesizers in this category are purple
because instead of using chlorophyll to
photosynthesize, they use a similar pigment
called bacteriorhodopsin that uses all light
except for purple light, making the cells appear
purple.
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• Halofil Ekstrim
• Hidup di tempat yang salinitasnya tinggi
• (halo garam, philospecinta)
• Pecinta garam atau hidup di tempat yang memiliki
  salinitas yang tinggi
• Cth di danau air asin, laut mati
• Ex Halobacterium salinarium
• Koloni halofil membentuk buih berwarna merah
  ungu yang dihasilkan oleh pigmen rhodopsin.
  Pigmen ini menangkap cahaya.

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• Thermophiles
• These are Archaebacteria from hot springs and
  other high temperature environments. Some can
  grow above the boiling temperature of water. They
  are anaerobes, performing anaerobic respiration.
• Thermophiles are interesting because they
  contain genes for heat-stable enzymes that may be
  of great value in industry and medicine. An
  example is taq polymerase, the gene for which was
  isolated from a collection of Thermus aquaticus
  in a Yellowstone Park hot spring. Annual sales of
  taq polymerase are roughly half a billion dollars.

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Termofil

• Hidup pada suhu yang ekstrim panas dengan suhu
  optimum 60-80 C.
• Bakteri ini hidup dengan mengoksidasi sulfur
• Ex Sulfolobus sp yang menempati mata air panas
  sulfur di Yellowstone National Park,USA

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Bahan Diskusi

• Dalam klasifikasi sebelumnya, Cyanobacteria
  disebut juga ganggang hijau biru dan tidak
  dikelompokkan ke dalam bakteri. Berikan alasan
  mengapa Cyanobacteria dipisahkan dari bakteri.
  Mengapa dalam klasifikasi sekarang Cyanobacteria
  dikelompokkan ke dalam bakteri ?

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Jawaban

• Tubuh monoselluler/multiselluler
• Memiliki ribosom
• Prokariotik
• Terdapat pigmen fikosianin dalam membran tilakoid
• Tidak mengandung plastida dan RE

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DISADVANTAGE
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Bacterial Diseases

• Anthrax
• Botulism
• Lyme Disease
• Salmonella
• Tetanus
• Tooth decay
• Tuberculosis

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Eubacteria

• Clostridium botulinum (pembusukan makanan)
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TBC)
• Vibrio cholerae ( penyakit kolera)
• Clostridium tetani (tetanus)
• Mycobacterium leprae (penyebab lepra)
• Bacillus anthracis (antraks pada sapi)
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens (tumor pada tumbuhan)

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Archaebacteria

• Merusak makanan yang telah diawetkan dengan garam

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The role of bacteria in the Nitrogen cycle
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Nitrogen-fixation

• some soil bacteria live in the ground and take in
  Nitrogen from the surroundings.
• the Nitrogen is combined with oxygen to form
  nitrites and nitrates. Plants use the nitrates
  and nitrites to make proteins.

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Denitrification

• some soil bacteria break down the nitrogen
  compounds and release the nitrogen back into the
  environment.
• plants could not live without Nitrogen-fixing and
  Denitrifying bacteria.

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Examples of Symbiotic Relationships

• Mutualism E. coli in the intestines of mammals
  aid in digestion.
• Parasitism some bacteria are parasites. They
  live in a host and eventually overpopulate. As
  they do they use the hosts food and water, and
  eventually they starve the tissues.

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Beneficial Uses/Effects

• chemical recyclers (Nitrogen Cycle)
• the production of HGH, Insulin, Etc., through
  Genetic Engineering
• oil spill cleanup
• synthesis of Vitamins in your intestines

84

• Other Bacteria live symbiotically in the guts of
  animals or elsewhere in their bodies.
• For example, bacteria in your gut produce vitamin
  K which is essential to blood clot formation.

85

• Still other Bacteria live on the roots of certain
  plants, converting nitrogen into a usable form.

86

• Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in
  sourdough bread.
• Saprobes help to break down dead organic matter.
• Bacteria make up the base of the food web in many
  environments.

Streptococcus thermophilus in yogurt
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Penanggulangan Bakteri

• Pengawetan dan Pengolahan Makanan
• Kebersihan dan Kesehatan Diri serta Lingkungan
• Imunisasi

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STAINING PROCESS
89
In Gram-positive bacteria, the purple crystal
violet stain is trapped by the layer of
peptidoglycan which forms the outer layer of the
cell. In Gram-negative bacteria, the outer
membrane of lipopolysaccharides prevents the
stain from reaching the peptidoglycan layer. The
outer membrane is then permeabilized by acetone
treatment, and the pink safranin counterstain is
trapped by the peptidoglycan layer.
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• The Gram stain has four steps
• 1. crystal violet, the primary stain followed
  by
• 2. iodine, which acts as a mordant by forming a
  crystal violet-iodine complex, then
• 3. alcohol, which decolorizes, followed by
• 4. safranin, the counterstain.

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• Gram staining tests the bacterial cell wall's
  ability to retain crystal violet dye during
  solvent treatment.
• Safranin is added as a mordant to form the
  crystal violet/safranin complex in order to
  render the dye impossible to remove.
• Ethyl-alcohol solvent acts as a decolorizer and
  dissolves the lipid layer from gram-negative
  cells. This enhances leaching of the primary
  stain from the cells into the surrounding
  solvent.
• Ethyl-alcohol will dehydrate the thicker
  gram-positive cell walls, closing the pores as
  the cell wall shrinks. 
• For this reason, the diffusion of the crystal
  violet-safranin staining is inhibited, so the
  bacteria remain stained.