Syntax

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Syntax
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Syntax Definition

• Syntax is the rules by which signs are combined
  to make statements.
• Syntax incorporates the grammar /structure of
  phrases, clauses, and sentences

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Syntax

• On a more general level
• there is also interest in the grammar/structure
  of texts
• sequences of sentences
• which form semantically coherent units.
• This is usually the area of discourse analysis,
  and of pragmatics.
• Traditionally linguistics was interested in
  sentences only.

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Syntax and Morphology

• Morphology (inflectional)
• explicit indication of the relation of words in a
  sentence
• additional information inflectional affixes
  have several functions, e.g.
• tense/aspect (I see, I saw)
• number (dogs, walks)
• person (likes)
• gender (lioness), etc.

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Syntax and Morphology

• Morphology (inflectional)
• explicit indication of the relation of words in a
  sentence
• How is it done?
• the same information (e.g. number) is repeated in
  several constituents, e.g.
• He (sing.) is (sing.) a (sing.) good (?) linguist
  (sing.)

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Word order

• The relation of words in a sentence is indicated
  also by the order in which they appear
• A dog bit a man
• A man bit a dog.
• Also called
• Linear order

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• Word order is particularly important in a
  language like English (or Chinese)
• but compare Polish
• brunatny/bialy niedzwiedz
• niedzwiedz brunatny/bialy

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Constituent structures

• Words (or basic syntactic elements) do not
  combine freely into sentences
• Words combine first into smaller units,
• which are constituents of sentences
• Words combine into
• noun (nominal) phrases
• verb (verbal) phrases
• and other less important phrases

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Constituents example

• my dog is named Rex
• that dog is named Rex
• the dog you just saw is named Rex
• the dog that is in the yard is named Rex
• the dog whose owner was arrested yesterday by
  the police for using him in a drug-running scheme
  is named Rex

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Constituents

• A simple rule for creating a question from an
  English sentence is
• you take the auxiliary verb and
• move it to the front of the sentence.
• the dog is in the yard
• is the dog __ in the yard?

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Constituents

• But what if there's more than one such verb in
  the sentence?
• we can't just take the first one.
• the dog that is in the yard is named Rex
• is the dog that __ in the yard is named Rex?
• we need to identify the verb which is the head
• the dog that is in the yard is named Rex
• is the dog that is in the yard __ named Rex?
• We can't understand this distinction without
  knowing how the pieces of the sentence fit
  together, i.e.
• their constituency, what the constituents are.

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Constituents

• In this case, we need to understand that the
  subject of the sentence might be complex,
  potentially containing one or more verbs of its
  own (in relative clauses that modify a noun).
• my dog is named Rex
• that dog is named Rex
• the dog you just saw is named Rex
• the dog that is in the yard is named Rex
• the dog whose owner was arrested yesterday by
  the police for using him in a drug-running scheme
  is named Rex

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Constituents

• All these sentences have the same structure
• except for the contents of the subject
• for operations that ignore the internal structure
  of the subject,
• such as inversion of the subject and the
  auxiliary,
• they all behave the same.

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Constituent structures

• It is phrases, not individual words, that are the
  building blocks of sentences
• Phrases are built, like syllables, or like
  sentences, of
• central elements
• non-central elements

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Phrases

• A phrase is
• a group of words which acts as
• a single unit in meaning and in grammar,
• in some theories
• is not built round a verb.

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Phrases

• can have many different functions in a sentence.
• subjects, objects, complements, modifiers, or
  adverbials.
• The strange green creatures with bobbing heads
  spoke.
• the strange green creatures with bobbing heads
  acts as
• the subject of the verb spoke.
• The phrase is a single unit both in its meaning
  and grammatically.
• the fragment the strange green is not a phrase,
• because it has no separate meaning and
• no grammatical function.

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Constituent structures

• The noun phrase
• central element the noun (Fire!)
• non-central elements
• adjectives (Good water),
• adverbs (modifying adjectives),
• determiners (a dog)

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Constituent structures

• The verb phrase
• central element the verb (Go.)
• non-central elements
• nouns (is an actor)
• adjectives (is good)

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Verb phrase

• The verb phrase is the most complex phrase in the
  sentence/clause.

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Verb phrase Object
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Verb phrase Indirect object
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Verb phrase Complements
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Constituent structures

• The sentence
• consists of phrases.
• The central constitutive element is
• the verb phrase/the verb.
• There are normal sentences which consist only of
  the verb phrase.
• Sit!

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Constituents

• ordering of elements in a phrase is often
  functionally motivated
• the usual order for adjectives in a noun phrase
• qualitative adjectives, colour adjectives,
  classifying adjectives.
• ...a little white wooden house.
• ...pretty black lacy dresses.

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Tests for constituency

• There are several ways to determine whether a
  string of words is a constituent, i.e. a coherent
  grouping of words in a syntactic unit.
• whether it can can stand alone as answers to the
  question,
• e.g. Who is Rex?
• Who's Rex? My dog! That dog!

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Tests for constituency

• a pro-form test
• whether a pronoun (it, them) or a pro-verb do,
  (do so, do it) -- can replace the string of words.

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Tests for constituency

• For example
• pronouns
• the dog you just saw NP is named Rex
• he is named Rex
• pro-verb
• I gave the bone to RexVP
• Yes, I did
• Yes, I did it already
• Yes, I did so yesterday

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Tests for constituency

• Another test for a constituent is whether it can
  move as a unit. An example is the construction
  called a cleft sentence.
• It's my dog that's named Rex
• It's the dog that is in the yard that's named
  Rex

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Sentences/clauses

• A clause is a grammatical unit that 
• includes, at minimum,
• a predicate and an explicit or implied subject,
  and
• expresses a proposition.
• Examples (English) 
• two clauses
• It is cold, although the sun is shining.
• The main clause is it is cold
• the subordinate clause is although the sun is
  shining.

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Predicate

• A predicate is the portion of a clause,
• excluding the subject,
• that expresses something about the subject. 
• Example
• The book is on the table.

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Sentence

• A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed
  of one or more clauses.
• The meaning of the term sentence may be expanded
  to include elliptical material and nonproductive
  items. 
• Examples
• After lunch. (in reply to When do you start?)
• Yes.
• Hello.
• Example (English) 
• I am reading a book.

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Complex sentences

• A complex sentence is a sentence which includes  
• at least one main clause, and
• at least one subordinate clause.
• Example
• The man whom you see is my brother.

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Compound sentence

• A compound sentence is a sentence composed of
• two or more coordinate clauses.

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Coordinate clauses

• A coordinate clause is a clause belonging to a
  series of two or more clauses which  
• are not syntactically dependent one on another,
  and
• are joined by means of
• a coordinating conjunction
• a connective, or
• parataxis.
• Examples
• I will go home and he will go to work.
• John likes hamburgers, but Mary prefers hot dogs.
  
• We might go to Seattle, or we might go to
  California.

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Clause
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• A single clause,
• if it begins with a capital letter and ends with
  a full stop is called
• a simple sentence
• but if it were joined to other clauses in the
  same structure, it is merely a part of a longer
  sentence and is then called a
• main clause.

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Structure of clauses

• There are seven basic structures
• (S subject V verb O object C complement A
  adverbial)
• SV Alison / sang.
• SVO Alison / sang / a song.
• SVC Alison / is / a good singer.
• SVA Alison / sings / in the choir.
• SVOO Alison / sang / her mum / a ballad.
• SVOA Alison / sang / the song / from the
  song-book.

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Finite and non-finite clauses

• Finite clauses have
• a finite verb as their head.
• I know everyone sent their friends birthday cards
  this year.
• Non-finite clauses have
• a non-finite verb as their head
• (i.e. an infinitive or a participle).
• Everyone promised to send their friends birthday
  cards this year.

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Finite/non-finite clauses

• This important difference is always signalled by
• the first verb in the verb-chain
• I know everyone has sent their friends birthday
  cards this year.
• Everyone hopes to have finished their projects by
  the end of the week.
• Having already finished their projects, they can
  have a rest.

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Finite/Non-finite clauses

• Finite clauses may generally be used as
• complete sentences (once any subordinating words
  have been removed)
• Everyone sent their friends birthday cards this
  year.
• Non-finite clauses are always
• part of a larger clause
• They have made plans to send their friends
  birthday cards this year.

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Finite/Non-finite

• These highlighted clauses are non-finite
• We really enjoy sailing our dinghy.
• Spurred on by the crowd, they won the match.
• He struggled to read the small type.
• Changing the tense of the sentence doesnt change
  the non-finite clause
• We enjoyed sailing our dinghy.
• We will enjoy sailing our dinghy.
• He struggles to read the small type.
• He will struggle to read the small type.
• Spurred on by the crowd, they won the match.
• Spurred on by the crowd, they are winning the
  match.

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Types of clauses

• Variations according to purpose
• The simplest clause form is called the
  declarative.
• the subject is before the verb
• You are my friend.
• 'Yes/no' interrogative (expecting the answer
  'yes' or 'no').
• the subject follows the first verb, which must be
  an auxiliary verb
• Have you seen it?
• Did you see that?

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Types of clauses

• 'Wh' interrogative (introduced by an
  interrogative word spelt wh...).
• the subject follows the first auxiliary verb,
• unless it is itself the interrogative word.
• Who are you meeting?
• Who is your friend?

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Types of clauses

• Exclamative.
• a 'wh-word' at the beginning, but
• the subject is in its normal position before the
  verb.
• What a friend you are!
• What a shame!

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Types of clauses

• Imperative.
• subject is usually hidden,
• but would otherwise be you and
• the first verb is in its basic form without any
  ending
• Be my friend!
• Please be my friend.

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Verb phrase Passives

• Many verb phrases can be either
• active or passive,
• a contrast which is traditionally called 'voice'.
• Active Sam built this house.
• Passive This house was built by Sam.
• The information is the same but the focus is
  different.
• The first sentence is about what Sam did, so Sam
  is the subject of the active verb.
• The second sentence is about the house, and the
  house is the subject of the passive verb.

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Syntactic typology

• Syntactic typology distinguishes languages based
  on their preferred word order.
• The most commonly considered phrases considered
  are the subject, object, and verb.
• This gives six different possible orders
• SOV, SVO, VSO, OSV, OVS, VOS.

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Syntactic typology

• SOV and SVO
• are the most common orders, constituting about
• 40 of languages each, with
• VSO constituting about 15.
• The remaining five percent of languages have
• the object before the subject.