Digital Games and Motivation: Implications for Instructional Design

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Digital Games and Motivation Implications
forInstructional Design

• Brett Bixler
• Penn State University

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Who am I?

• Brett Bixler
• Lead Instructional Designer
• Penn State University
• Manager, Instructional Support and Research,
  Education Technology Services
• 23 years working w/ed. tech.

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Where do I Work?

• Education Technology Services
• Part of Teaching and Learning with Technology
• Part of Information Technology Services (ITS)

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Why am I Interested in Games?

• Motivation is a key to learning.
• Motivated people will learn.
• Software in the late 80s - early 90s had
  game-like elements.

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A Day in the Life
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S.C.O.R.E.
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Todays Format

• What is a Game?
• Group Fun
• Motivational Theories Discussion
• More Group Fun
• Discussion and Wrap-up

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What is a Game?

• Voluntary Participation
• Rules
• Verify appropriateness of strategies
• Goals
• Challenge - You must have a stake in thye
  outcome!
• Limit usable strategies
• Defined Outcome(s)

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What is a Game? - pt. 2

• Feedback
• Used to measure progress against goal(s)
• Interactions
• Conflict (overt or covert)
• Competition (with the game, others, or self)
• Opposition (with the game, others, or self)

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What is a Game? - pt. 3

• Representation
• What the game is about
• An abstracted story of reality
• Separation from Reality
• A safe environment consequences are not
  externalized
• May contain fantasy or "impossible" elements

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Types of Games

• Action
• Fighting
• First-person shooter (Doom)
• Role-playing
• Individual (Neverwinter Nights)
• Massively Multiplayer Online Games (EverQuest,
  World of Warcraft)

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Doom - 1st Person Shooter
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007 - 1st Person Shooter
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007 - 1st Person Shooter
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EverQuest - MMORPG
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EverQuest - MMORPG
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Types of Games - pt. 2

• Adventure
• Puzzles (Myst)
• Simulators
• Flight (MS Flight Simulator)
• Racing
• Sports

• Military (America's Army)
• Economic (Tycoon Series)
• City-building Games (SimCity)

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Sega Tennis
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Sega Tennis
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Types of Games - pt. 3

• Strategy
• Strategy Wargames
• Real-time strategy and turn-based strategy games
  (Civilization)
• Real-time tactical and turn-based tactical games
  (Pirates!)
• God Games (Sims)
• Puzzle Games (Sudoku)

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Pirates!
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Pirates!
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Genres of Games

• Arcade - Asteroids
• Maze PacMan
• Music Dance Dance Revolution
• Party - Dance Dance Revolution
• Pinball

• Platform Donkey Kong, Lemmings
• Stealth - 007
• Survival horror Resident Evil
• Traditional Board and Card Games
• Vehicular combat Interstate '82

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Group Fun, Part 1

• Break into groups of 3-4.
• Read the handout.
• Make a list of how you would add motivational
  elements to this rough outline.
• 10 minutes.

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What is Motivation?

• Many definitions exist.
• Defining it is an elusive process, as difficult
  to do as grasping a slippery fish in a dark cave.
• Heres the one I like
• The term motivation in psychology is a global
  concept for a variety of processes and effects
  whose common core is the realization that an
  organism selects a particular behavior because of
  expected consequences, and then implements it
  with some measure of energy, along a particular
  path. (Heckhausen, 1991, p. 9).

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More on Defining Motivation

• Two basic definitions.
• Psysiological
• Observable facts
• measurable bodily functions. The term energized
  is used (Travers, 1982).
• Psychological
• Do we have cognitive sources of motivation?
• Psychogenic needs, needs that are learned
  (Travers, 1982).

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Even More on Defining Motivation

• Cultural context must be considered.
• Cultural context can affect a persons
  achievement motivation (Travers, 1982).
• Fukász (1985) states motivation must always be
  studied in the context of historical traditions
  and the economic, social, and cultural conditions
  of the country in question.

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Why is Motivation Important?

• It is almost universally accepted that there is a
  positive correlation between motivation and
  learning.
• Dewey himself (1938) said that most important
  attitude that can be formed is a desire to learn.
• Schank (1999) placed motivation at the top of the
  list of important things when building the
  Virtual University!

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What About Motivation and Learning?

• We need to understand enough about motivation to
  effectively employ it in instructional design
  processes.
• Understanding the particular conditions that
  energize human behavior is needed to successfully
  control motivational constructs in instruction
  (Travers, 1982).
• Unfortunately, our understanding of motivation is
  a weak link as applied to learning and design
  processes (Duchastel, 1997).

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ISD Models With an Implied Motivational Component

• Most models only mention it Reigeluth (1999).
• Some provide general guidelines.
• Cropley (1985) lists five general areas you
  should consider
• Organization - Environment makes sense.
• Content - Linked to real-life needs.
• Activities - Self-paced.
• Staff Staff Training - Be aware of learner
  needs.
• Technology - Support all the above.

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More on ISD Models With an Implied Motivational
Component

• Some have motivation covertly assimilated into
  the theory.
• Dick Carey (1996) state that motivating
  learners should be done throughout an
  instructional activity.
• Open Learning Environments mention topic
  relevance (Hannifin, Land, and Oliver, 1999).
• The concept of Scaffolding has motivational
  aspects.

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ISD Models With an Overt Motivational Component

• ARCS Model (Keller, 1987).
• Time Continuum Model of Motivation (Wlodkowski,
  1998, 1999).
• Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivations for Learning
  (Malone Lepper, 1988).

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ARCS Model

• Attention
• Relevance
• Confidence
• Satisfaction

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ARCS Model - Attention

• Attention
• Perceptual ArousalGain and maintain student
  attention via novel, surprising, incongruous, or
  uncertain events in instruction.
• Inquiry ArousalStimulate information-seeking
  behavior by posing, or having the learner
  generate, questions or a problem to solve.
• VariabilityMaintain student interest by varying
  the elements of instruction.

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ARCS Model - Relevance

• Relevance
• How does the instruction seem to meet the present
  and anticipated needs of the learners?
• Relevance can not only come from what is taught,
  but also from how it is taught.
• Curiosity, creativity, and higher-order thinking
  are stimulated by relevant, authentic tasks of
  optimal difficulty and novelty for each student,
  according to Wagner (1998)

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ARCS Model - More on Relevance

• There are three basic methods for providing
  relevance
• FamiliarityAdapt instruction, use concrete
  language, use examples and concepts that are
  related to the learner's experience and values to
  help them integrate new knowledge.
• Goal OrientationProvide statements or examples
  that present the objectives and utility of the
  instruction, and either present goals for
  accomplishment or have the learner define them.
• Motive MatchingAdapt by using teaching
  strategies that match the motive profiles of the
  students.

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ARCS Model - Confidence

• Confidence
• Three ways of building confidence in the learner
• Expectancy for SuccessMake learners aware of
  performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
  
• Challenge SettingProvide multiple achievement
  levels that allow learners to set personal goals
  or standards of accomplishment, and performance
  opportunities that allow them to experience
  success.
• Attribution MoldingProvide feedback that
  supports student ability and effort as the
  determinants of success.

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ARCS Model - Satisfaction

• Satisfaction
• How good do people feel about their
  accomplishments? There are thee ways of enhancing
  satisfaction
• Natural ConsequencesProvide opportunities to use
  newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or
  simulated setting.
• Positive ConsequencesProvide feedback and
  reinforcements that will sustain the desired
  behavior.
• EquityMaintain consistent standards and
  consequences for task accomplishment.

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Time Continuum Model

• Raymond J. Wlodkowskis believes that in any
  instruction, one should build
• Value Is the learning important?
• Appeal How stimulating is the learning?
• Perseverance How well do students maintain
  their involvement?
• Continuing motivation How well/often do
  students use what was learned outside the
  learning experience.

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Time Continuum Model

• Raymond J. Wlodkowskis Model
• Before Instruction
• Attitude
• Need
• During Instruction
• Stimulation
• Affect
• After Instruction
• Competence
• Reinforcement

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Motivational Framework for Culturally Responsive
Teaching

• Another Raymond J. Wlodkowski Model
• 1. Establish inclusion by creating a feeling of
  respect and connectivity between teachers and
  students.
• 2. Develop attitude by ensuring personal
  relevance and choice.
• 3. Enhance meaning by creating challenging
  experiences that include learners values and
  perspectives.
• 4. Engender competence by creating an
  understanding that learners will learn about
  something that they want to learn about.

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Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivation for Learning

• Developed by Thomas W. Malone and Mark R. Lepper
  (1988).
• Two parts
• Individual Motivations and
• Interpersonal Motivations

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Taxonomy - Individual Motivations

• A. Challenge
• A.1. Goals
• A.2. Uncertain Outcomes
• A.3. Performance Feedback
• A.4. Self-esteem
• B. Curiosity
• B.1. Sensory Curiosity
• B.2. Cognitive Curiosity

• C. Control
• C.1. Contingency
• C.2. Choice
• C.3. Power
• D. Fantasy
• D.1. Emotional Aspects
• D.2. Cognitive Aspects
• D.3. Endogeneity

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Taxonomy - Interpersonal Motivations

• A. Cooperation
• B. Competition
• C. Recognition

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Comparison of Taxonomies

• Please refer to the Comparison Handout.

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The Importance of Flow

• A term coined by M. Csikszentmihalyi (1990).
• (Thats pronounced Chick sent me high.)
• A merging of the learners total attention with
  the task at hand such that all other sensory and
  cognitive distractions are invisible to the
  learner.
• Flow may be described as an optimal motivating
  experience.

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Can Flow Exist in a Learning Environment?

• Jones (1988) believes it can.
• Please refer to the Elements of Flow Handout.

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Group Fun, the Sequel

• Break into groups of 3-4.
• Read the handout.
• Make a list of how you would add motivational
  elements to this rough outline.
• 10 minutes.

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So Where Do Games Fit?

• Games embody most of the motivational aspects of
  the ISD models we examined.
• Games develop situated understanding - learn by
  doing (Schaffer, Squire, Halverson, and Gee,
  2004).
• Games can foster development of effective social
  practices.

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So Where Do Games Fit? - more

• The traditional learning structure
• Facts (usually in isolation)
• Concepts
• Higher-level learning
• Games flipflop the traditional learning
  structure
• Higher-level learning
• Facts and concepts emerge naturally.
• Facts and concepts are tied to the activity in a
  natural way.

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Problems With Digital Games

• We are not sure how to plan them.
• A great deal of related research exists.
• Most games today are produced without any
  learning theory integrated.
• Schools are not ready for them.
• Teachers dont see their value.
• Games are at odds with traditional curricula.

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Game Type vs. Cognitive Level
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Potential Research Issues

• Games are immersive
• At what point do people lose interest?
• Games and fun and voluntary
• How much seriousness can we interject in games?
• Games have a number of structures
• Which ones are beneficial for learning?
• Which ones are not?
• Transfer
• How well do game environments and learning
  translate to the real world?

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Potential Research Issues

• Games offer a simplified model of reality
• Can one really learn complex, real-world
  relationships from them?
• Games are motivating
• Does motivation lead to learning gains?
• Retention gains?
• People like games
• But not everyone does, and not everyone likes the
  same type of game.
• What predictors are there for game preferences?

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Discussion and Wrap-up

• QA!

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The End

• Or is it really the beginning?