Pregnancy and Human Development

1
Chapter 28

• Pregnancy and Human Development

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From Egg to Embryo

• Pregnancy events that occur from fertilization
  until the infant is born
• Conceptus the developing offspring
• Gestation period from the last menstrual period
  until birth

3
From Egg to Embryo

• Preembryo conceptus from fertilization until it
  is two weeks old
• Embryo conceptus during the third through the
  eighth week
• Fetus conceptus from the ninth week through
  birth

4
Relative Size of Human Conceptus
Figure 28.1
5
Accomplishing Fertilization

• The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours
• Sperm is viable 24 to 72 hours
• For fertilization to occur, coitus must occur no
  more than
• Three days before ovulation
• 24 hours after ovulation
• Fertilization when a sperm fuses with an egg to
  form a zygote

6
Sperm Transport and Capacitation

• Fates of ejaculated sperm
• Leak out of the vagina immediately after
  deposition
• Destroyed by the acidic vaginal environment
• Fail to make it through the cervix
• Dispersed in the uterine cavity or destroyed by
  phagocytic leukocytes
• Reach the uterine tubes
• Sperm must undergo capacitation before they can
  penetrate the oocyte

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Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration

• An ovulated oocyte is encapsulated by
• The corona radiata and zona pellucida
• Extracellular matrix
• Sperm binds to the zona pellucida and undergoes
  the acrosomal reaction
• Enzymes are released near the oocyte
• Hundreds of acrosomes release their enzymes to
  digest the zona pellucida

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Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration

• Once a sperm makes contact with the oocytes
  membrane
• Beta protein finds and binds to receptors on the
  oocyte membrane
• Alpha protein causes it to insert into the
  membrane

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Figure 28.2a
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Blocks to Polyspermy

• Only one sperm is allowed to penetrate the oocyte
• Two mechanisms ensure monospermy
• Fast block to polyspermy membrane
  depolarization prevents sperm from fusing with
  the oocyte membrane
• Slow block to polyspermy zonal inhibiting
  proteins (ZIPs)
• Destroy sperm receptors
• Cause sperm already bound to receptors to detach

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Completion of Meiosis II and Fertilization

• Upon entry of sperm, the secondary oocyte
• Completes meiosis II
• Casts out the second polar body
• The ovum nucleus swells, and the two nuclei
  approach each other
• When fully swollen, the two nuclei are called
  pronuclei
• Fertilization when the pronuclei come together

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Events Immediately Following Sperm Penetration
Figure 28.3
13
Preembryonic Development

• The first cleavage produces two daughter cells
  called blastomeres
• Morula the 16 or more cell stage (72 hours old)
• By the fourth or fifth day the preembryo consists
  of 100 or so cells (blastocyst)

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Preembryonic Development

• Blastocyst a fluid-filled hollow sphere
  composed of
• A single layer of trophoblasts
• An inner cell mass
• Trophoblasts take part in placenta formation
• The inner cell mass becomes the embryonic disc

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Cleavage From Zygote to Blastocyst
Figure 28.4
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Implantation

• Begins six to seven days after ovulation when the
  trophoblasts adhere to a properly prepared
  endometrium
• The trophoblasts then proliferate and form two
  distinct layers
• Cytotrophoblast cells of the inner layer that
  retain their cell boundaries
• Syncytiotrophoblast cells in the outer layer
  that lose their plasma membranes and invade the
  endometrium

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Implantation

• The implanted blastocyst is covered over by
  endometrial cells
• Implantation is completed by the fourteenth day
  after ovulation

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Implantation of the Blastocyst
Figure 28.5a
19
Implantation of the Blastocyst
Figure 28.5b
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Implantation

• Viability of the corpus luteum is maintained by
  human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by
  the trophoblasts
• hCG prompts the corpus luteum to continue to
  secrete progesterone and estrogen
• Chorion developed from trophoblasts after
  implantation, continues this hormonal stimulus
• Between the second and third month, the placenta
  
• Assumes the role of progesterone and estrogen
  production
• Is providing nutrients and removing wastes

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Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy
Figure 28.6
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Placentation

• Formation of the placenta from
• Embryonic trophoblastic tissues
• Maternal endometrial tissues

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Placentation

• The chorion develops fingerlike villi, which
• Become vascularized
• Extend to the embryo as umbilical arteries and
  veins
• Lie immersed in maternal blood
• Decidua basalis part of the endometrium that
  lies between the chorionic villi and the stratum
  basalis

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Placentation

• Decidua capsularis part of the endometrium
  surrounding the uterine cavity face of the
  implanted embryo
• The placenta is fully formed and functional by
  the end of the third month

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Placentation

• Embryonic placental barriers include
• The chorionic villi
• The endothelium of embryonic capillaries
• The placenta also secretes other hormones human
  placental lactogen, human chorionic thyrotropin,
  and relaxin

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Placentation
Figure 28.7ac
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Placentation
Figure 28.7d
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Placentation
Figure 28.7f
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Germ Layers

• The blastocyst develops into a gastrula with
  three primary germ layers ectoderm, endoderm,
  and mesoderm
• Before becoming three-layered, the inner cell
  mass subdivides into the upper epiblast and lower
  hypoblast
• These layers form two of the four embryonic
  membranes

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Embryonic Membranes

• Amnion epiblast cells form a transparent
  membrane filled with amniotic fluid
• Provides a buoyant environment that protects the
  embryo
• Helps maintain a constant homeostatic temperature
• Amniotic fluid comes from maternal blood, and
  later, fetal urine

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Embryonic Membranes

• Yolk sac hypoblast cells that form a sac on the
  ventral surface of the embryo
• Forms part of the digestive tube
• Produces earliest blood cells and vessels
• Is the source of primordial germ cells

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Embryonic Membranes

• Allantois a small outpocketing at the caudal
  end of the yolk sac
• Structural base for the umbilical cord
• Becomes part of the urinary bladder
• Chorion helps form the placenta
• Encloses the embryonic body and all other
  membranes

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Gastrulation

• During the 3rd week, the two-layered embryonic
  disc becomes a three-layered embryo
• The primary germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm,
  and endoderm
• Primitive streak raised dorsal groove that
  establishes the longitudinal axis of the embryo

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Gastrulation

• As cells begin to migrate
• The first cells that enter the groove form the
  endoderm
• The cells that follow push laterally between the
  cells forming the mesoderm
• The cells that remain on the embryos dorsal
  surface form the ectoderm
• Notochord rod of mesodermal cells that serves
  as axial support

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Primary Germ Layers

• Serve as primitive tissues from which all body
  organs will derive
• Ectoderm forms structures of the nervous system
  and skin epidermis
• Endoderm forms epithelial linings of the
  digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems
• Mesoderm forms all other tissues
• Endoderm and ectoderm are securely joined and are
  considered epithelia

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Primary Germ Layers
Figure 28.8ae
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Primary Germ Layers
Figure 28.8eh
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Organogenesis

• Gastrulation sets the stage for organogenesis,
  the formation of body organs
• By the 8th week all organ systems are recognizable

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Specialization of Ectoderm

• Neurulation the first event of organogenesis
  gives rise to the brain and spinal cord
• Ectoderm over the notochord thickens, forming the
  neural plate
• The neural plate folds inward as a neural groove
  with prominent neural folds

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Specialization of Ectoderm

• By the 22nd day, neural folds fuse into a neural
  tube, which pinches off into the body
• The anterior end becomes the brain the rest
  becomes the spinal cord
• Associated neural crest cells give rise to
  cranial, spinal, and sympathetic ganglia

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Specialization of Ectoderm Neuralization
Figure 28.9a, b
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Specialization of Ectoderm Neuralization
Figure 28.9c, d
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Specialization of Endoderm

• Embryonic folding begins with lateral folds
• Next, head and tail folds appear
• An endoderm tube forms the epithelial lining of
  the GI tract
• Organs of the GI tract become apparent, and oral
  and anal openings perforate
• Endoderm forms epithelium linings of the hollow
  organs of the digestive and respiratory tracts

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Folding of the Embryonic Body
Figure 28.10ad
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Endodermal Differentiation
Figure 28.11
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Specialization of the Mesoderm

• First evidence is the appearance of the notochord
  
• Three mesoderm aggregates appear lateral to the
  notochord
• Somites, intermediate mesoderm, and double sheets
  of lateral mesoderm

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Specialization of the Mesoderm

• The 40 pairs of somites have three functional
  parts
• Sclerotome produce the vertebrae and ribs
• Dermatome help form the dermis of the skin on
  the dorsal part of the body
• Myotome form the skeletal muscles of the neck,
  trunk, and limbs

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Specialization of the Mesoderm

• Intermediate mesoderm forms the gonads and the
  kidneys
• Lateral mesoderm consists of somatic and
  splanchnic mesoderm

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Specialization of the Mesoderm

• Somatic mesoderm forms the
• Dermis of the skin in the ventral region
• Parietal serosa of the ventral body cavity
• Bones, ligaments, and dermis of the limbs
• Splanchnic mesoderm forms
• The heart and blood vessels
• Most connective tissues of the body

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Specialization of the Mesoderm
Figure 28.12
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Development of Fetal Circulation

• By the end of the 3rd week
• The embryo has a system of paired vessels
• The vessels forming the heart have fused

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Development of Fetal Circulation

• Unique vascular modifications seen in prenatal
  development include umbilical arteries and veins,
  and three vascular shunts (occluded at birth)
• Ductus venosus venous shunt that bypasses the
  liver
• Foramen ovale opening in the interatrial septa
  to bypass pulmonary circulation
• Ductus arteriosus transfers blood from the
  right ventricle to the aorta

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Circulation in Fetus and Newborn
Figure 28.13
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Effects of Pregnancy Anatomical Changes

• Chadwicks sign the vagina develops a purplish
  hue
• Breasts enlarge and their areolae darken
• The uterus expands, occupying most of the
  abdominal cavity

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Effects of Pregnancy Anatomical Changes

• Lordosis is common due to the change of the
  bodys center of gravity
• Relaxin causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic
  symphysis to relax
• Typical weight gain is about 29 pounds

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Relative Uterus Size During Pregnancy
Figure 28.15
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Effects of Pregnancy Metabolic Changes

• The placenta secretes human placental lactogen
  (hPL), also called human chorionic
  somatomammotropin (hCS), which stimulates the
  maturation of the breasts
• hPL promotes growth of the fetus and exerts a
  maternal glucose-sparing effect
• Human chorionic thyrotropin (hCT) increases
  maternal metabolism
• Parathyroid hormone levels are high, ensuring a
  positive calcium balance

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Effects of Pregnancy Physiological Changes

• GI tract morning sickness occurs due to
  elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone
• Urinary system urine production increases to
  handle the additional fetal wastes
• Respiratory system edematous and nasal
  congestion may occur
• Dyspnea (difficult breathing) may develop late in
  pregnancy

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Effects of Pregnancy Physiological Changes

• Cardiovascular system blood volume increases
  25-40
• Venous pressure from lower limbs is impaired,
  resulting in varicose veins

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Parturition Initiation of Labor

• Estrogen reaches a peak during the last weeks of
  pregnancy causing myometrial weakness and
  irritability
• Weak Braxton Hicks contractions may take place
• As birth nears, oxytocin and prostaglandins cause
  uterine contractions
• Emotional and physical stress
• Activates the hypothalamus
• Sets up a positive feedback mechanism, releasing
  more oxytocin

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Parturition Initiation of Labor
Figure 28.16
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Stages of Labor Dilation Stage

• From the onset of labor until the cervix is fully
  dilated (10 cm)
• Initial contractions are 1530 minutes apart and
  1030 seconds in duration
• The cervix effaces and dilates
• The amnion ruptures, releasing amniotic fluid
  (breaking of the water)
• Engagement occurs as the infants head enters the
  true pelvis

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Stages of Labor Dilation Stage
Figure 28.17a, b
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Stages of Labor Expulsion Stage

• From full dilation to delivery of the infant
• Strong contractions occur every 23 minutes and
  last about 1 minute
• The urge to push increases in labor without local
  anesthesia
• Crowning occurs when the largest dimension of the
  head is distending the vulva

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Stages of Labor Expulsion Stage
Figure 28.17c
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Stages of Labor Expulsion Stage

• The delivery of the placenta is accomplished
  within 30 minutes of birth
• Afterbirth the placenta and its attached fetal
  membranes
• All placenta fragments must be removed to prevent
  postpartum bleeding

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Stages of Labor Expulsion Stage
Figure 28.17d
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Extrauterine Life

• At 1-5 minutes after birth, the infants physical
  status is assessed based on five signs heart
  rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, and
  reflexes
• Each observation is given a score of 0 to 2
• Apgar score the total score of the above
  assessments
• 8-10 indicates a healthy baby
• Lower scores reveal problems

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First Breath

• Once carbon dioxide is no longer removed by the
  placenta, central acidosis occurs
• This excites the respiratory centers to trigger
  the first inspiration
• This requires tremendous effort airways are
  tiny and the lungs are collapsed
• Once the lungs inflate, surfactant in alveolar
  fluid helps reduce surface tension

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Occlusion of Fetal Blood Vessels

• Umbilical arteries and vein constrict and become
  fibrosed
• Fates of fetal vessels
• Proximal umbilical arteries become superior
  vesical arteries and distal parts become the
  medial umbilical ligaments
• The umbilical vein becomes the ligamentum teres
• The ductus venosus becomes the ligamentum venosum
• The foramen ovale becomes the fossa ovalis
• The ductus arteriosus becomes the ligamentum
  arteriosum

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Transitional Period

• Unstable period lasting 6-8 hours after birth
• The first 30 minutes the baby is alert and active
• Heart rate increases (120-160 beats/min.)
• Respiration is rapid and irregular
• Temperature falls

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Transitional Period

• Activity then diminishes and the infant sleeps
  about three hours
• A second active stage follows in which the baby
  regurgitates mucus and debris
• After this, the infant sleeps, with waking
  periods occurring every 3-4 hours

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Lactation

• The production of milk by the mammary glands
• Estrogens, progesterone, and lactogen stimulate
  the hypothalamus to release prolactin-releasing
  hormone (PRH)
• The anterior pituitary responds by releasing
  prolactin

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Lactation

• Colostrum
• Solution rich in vitamin A, protein, minerals,
  and IgA antibodies
• Is released the first 23 days
• Is followed by true milk production

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Lactation and Milk Let-down Reflex

• After birth, milk production is stimulated by the
  sucking infant

Figure 28.18
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Breast Milk

• Advantages of breast milk for the infant
• Fats and iron are better absorbed
• Its amino acids are metabolized more efficiently
  than those of cows milk
• Beneficial chemicals are present IgA, other
  immunoglobulins, complement, lysozyme,
  interferon, and lactoperoxidase
• Interleukins and prostaglandins are present,
  which prevent overzealous inflammatory responses
• Its natural laxatives help cleanse the bowels of
  meconium