Motivation and Emotion

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Motivation and Emotion
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Motivation Concepts and Theories

• Motivationfactors within and outside an
  organism that cause it to behave a certain way
  at a certain time
• Drivean internal condition or impulse that
  activates behavior to reduce a need and restore
  homeostasis
• Incentiveexternal goal that pulls or pushes
  behavior

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Theories of Motivation

• Instinctmotives are innate
• Drivebiological needs as motivation
• Incentiveextrinsic things push or pull behavior
• Arousalpeople are motivated to maintain optimum
  level of arousal
• Humanistichierarchy of needs

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Drives as Tissue Needs

• Homeostasisthe constancy of internal conditions
  that the body must actively maintain
• Drives may be due to an upset in homeostasis,
  inducing behavior to correct the imbalance
• Animals do behave in accordance with their
  tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing
  caloric intake, drive for salt)
• However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives

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Arousal Theory

• People are motivated to maintain an optimum level
  of arousalneither too high nor too low
• Curiosity motivehelps us understand our
  environment

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Sensation Seeking

• A person high in sensation seeking tends to look
  for exciting (and sometimes risky) activities

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Humanistic Theories

• Abraham Maslow suggested that motives are divided
  into several levels from basic survival needs to
  psychological and self-fulfillment needs.

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Drives as States of the Brain

• The hub of many central drive systems lies in the
  hypothalamus

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Energy Homeostasis

• Basic metabolic rate (BMR)--the rate a body at
  rest uses for vital life functions
• Energy homeostasis--long-term matching of food
  intake to energy expenditure
• Positive energy balance--when caloric intake
  exceeds amount of caloric energy expended
• Negative energy balance--when caloric intake
  falls short of amount of caloric energy expended

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Short-Term Eating Signals

• Physiological--slight increase in blood insulin
• Psychological--classical and operant conditioning
  surrounding eating behavior
• Satiety--signals from the stomach, chemical
  (CCK), and stretch receptors
• Leptin, a hormone indicating the amount of fat
  in the body

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Long-Term Signals and Body Weight

• Secretion of leptin and insulin are directly
  proportional to the amount of body fat
• Set-point--theory that says optimal body weight
  is defended by regulating hunger feelings and
  metabolic rate
• Settling-point--theory that says body weight
  stabilizes around the point where there is a
  balance between energy intake and energy
  expenditure.

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Basal Metabolic Rate

• The rate at which the body uses energy for vital
  functions while at rest
• Factors that influence BMR
• Age
• Sex
• Size
• Genetics
• Food intake

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Excess Weight and Obesity

• Obesitycondition characterized by excessive body
  fat and a BMI equal to or greater than 30.0
• Overweightcondition characterized by BMI between
  25.0 and 29.9

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Factors in Obesity

• Positive incentive value of palatable food
• Super-size it!
• Cafeteria diet effect
• BMR changes over the life span
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Leptin resistence
• Weight cycling

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Factors Contributing to Being Overweight

• Highly palatable foodwe eat because it tastes so
  good
• SuperSize Itfood portions are larger than
  necessary for health
• Cafeteria Diet Effectmore food and more variety
  lead us to eat more
• Snackingdoes not cause us to eat less at dinner
• BMRchanges through the lifespan
• Sedentary lifestyles

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Eating Disorders

• Anorexia nervosacharacterized by excessive
  weight loss, irrational fear of gaining weight,
  and distorted body image
• Bulimia nervosacharacterized by binges of
  extreme overeating followed by self-induced
  purging such as vomiting, laxatives
• Binge-eatingdisorder characterized by recurring
  episodes of binge eating without purging

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Unrealistic standards of beauty may contribute
to high incidence of eating disorders
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Sexual Motivation and Behavior

• Physiological determinants
• Estrus in many animals controls sexual behavior
• Psychological determinants
• Sexual behavior in humans is not limited to
  reproduction

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Some Definitions

• Sexthe biological category of male or female
  sexual intercourse
• Gendercultural, social, and psychological
  meanings associated with masculinity or
  femininity
• Gender rolesbehaviors, attitudes, and
  personality traits designated either masculine or
  feminine in a given culture
• Gender identityA persons psychological sense of
  being male or female
• Sexual orientationdirection of a person's
  emotional and erotic attractions

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Human Sexual Response

• Stage 1 Excitementbeginning of sexual arousal
• Stage 2 Plateauincreased physical arousal
• Stage 3 Orgasmmale ejaculates, female vaginal
  contractions
• Stage 4 Resolutionarousal subsides

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Sexual Orientation

• Sexual orientationdirection of a person's
  emotional and erotic attractions
• Heterosexualsexual attraction for the opposite
  sex
• Homosexualsexual attraction for the same sex
• Gaytypically used to describe male homosexuals
• Lesbiantypically used to describe female
  homosexuals
• Bisexualsexual attraction for both sexes

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Determination of Sexual Orientation

• Geneticsrole suggested by twin and family
  studies
• Brain structuredifferences found in hypothalamus
  of homosexual and heterosexual men
• Hormonal adrogenized females
• Complex issue with no clear answers

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Some General Findings

• Sexual orientation is an early-emerging,
  ingrained aspect of the self that probably does
  not change
• No consistent relationship between orientation
  and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting,
  abuse, sexual experience)
• Controversial findings suggest a possible
  relationship among prenatal stress, androgens,
  and the development of brain systems that play a
  role in sexual attraction

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Sexuality in Adulthood

• Majority of adults (80) report having none or
  one sexual partner in the past year (marriage
  factor)
• Majority of men ages 18-59 have sex about seven
  times per month
• Majority of women ages 18-59 have sex about six
  times per month
• Vaginal intercourse is nearly universal as the
  most widely practiced sexual activity among
  heterosexual couples
• 50 percent of older Americans reported sexual
  activity at least once per month.

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Sexual Disorders and Problems

• Sexual dysfunctionconsistent disturbance in
  sexual desire, arousal, or orgasm that causes
  psychological distress and interpersonal
  difficulties
• 43 of women and 31 of men report sexual
  problems
• Low desire and arousal problems common among
  women
• Premature ejaculation and erectile problems
  common among men

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Humanistic Theories

• Abraham Maslow suggested that motives are
  divided into several levels--from basic survival
  needs to psychological and self-fulfillment needs

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Self-Determination Theory

• Optimal human functioning can occur only if the
  psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and
  relatedness are met
• Proposed by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan

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Self-Determination Theory

• Autonomyneed to determine, control, and organize
  ones own behavior and goals
• Competenceneed to effectively learn and master
  challenging tasks
• Relatednessneed to feel attached to others

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Competence and Achievement

• Competence motivationbehavior aimed at
  demonstrating competence and exerting control in
  a situation
• Achievement motivationbehavior aimed at
  excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at
  some activity
• Can be influenced by culture

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Concept of Emotion

• A class of subjective feelings elicited by
  stimuli that have high significance to an
  individual
• stimuli that produce high arousal generally
  produce strong feelings
• are rapid and automatic
• emerged through natural selection to benefit
  survival and reproduction

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Basic Emotions

• Fear, surprise, anger, disgust, happiness,
  sadness
• Basic emotions are innate and hard-wired
• Complex emotions are a blend of many aspects of
  emotions
• Classified along two dimensions
• Pleasant or unpleasant
• Level of activation or arousal associated with
  the emotion

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Physical Arousal and Emotions

• Sympathetic nervous system is aroused with
  emotions (fight-or-flight response)
• Different emotions stimulate different responses
• Feardecrease in skin temperature (cold-feet)
• Angerincrease in skin temperature (hot under the
  collar)

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Brain and Emotions

• Amygdala
• evaluates the significance of stimuli and
  generates emotional responses
• generates hormonal secretions and autonomic
  reactions that accompany strong emotions
• Direct connection to thalamus allows for rapid
  reaction to potentially dangerous situations

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Emotion and Facial Expressions

• Each basic emotion is associated with a unique
  facial expression
• Facial expressions are innate and hard-wired
• Innate facial expressions the same across many
  cultures
• Display rulessocial and cultural rules that
  regulate emotional expression, especially facial
  expressions.

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James-Lange Theory
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Cannons Challenge
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Two-Factor Theory
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Cognitive-Mediational Theory

• Emotions result from the cognitive appraisal of a
  situations effect on personal well-being
• Similar to two-factor, but cognitive mediational
  theorys emphasis is on the cognitive appraisal
  as the essential trigger of the emotional response