Praxis II: Principles of Learning & Teaching K-6 & 7-12 Review Session

1
Praxis II Principles of Learning TeachingK-6
7-12Review Session

• Dr. Tom Hawley
• November 6, 2003
• 500 700 pm

2
Overview of the Principles of Learning Teaching
Exam

• Designed to assess a beginning teachers
  knowledge of a variety of job-related criteria

3
Principles of Learning Teaching at a Glance

• 2 hour test
• 12 short-answer questions and 24 multiple-choice
  questions
• Format 4 case studies, each with 3
  constructed-response questions and 24 multiple
  choice questions

4
Principles of Learning Teaching at a Glance

• Includes 4 case studies, each presenting a
  particular teaching situation
• For each case study, you will respond to 3
  short-answer questions
• 12 short-answer questions will cover all of the
  content areas
• Each short-answer question will be scored on a
  scale of 0-2
• Each case study with short-answer answers will
  require 25 minutes budget your time!

5
Principles of Learning Teaching at a Glance

• Plan on 25 minutes per case study
• Allow 10 minutes to answer each of the two
  sections of multiple-choice questions
• Multiple-choice questions are not associated with
  the case studies

6
Content Categories

• Students as Learners (35)
• Instruction and Assessment (35)
• Communication Techniques (15)
• Teacher Professionalism (15)

7
Content Categories

• Students as Learners (35)
• Student development the learning process
• Students as diverse learners
• Student motivation and the learning environment

8
Content Categories

• Instruction and Assessment (35)
• Instructional strategies
• Planning instruction
• Assessment strategies

9
Content Categories

• Communication Techniques (15)
• Effective verbal and nonverbal communication
• Cultural and gender differences in communication
• Stimulating discussion and responses in the
  classroom

10
Content Categories

• Teacher Professionalism (15)
• The reflective practitioner
• The larger community

11
Student as Learners

• Student Development and the Learning Process
• Knowing each theorists major ideas and being
  able to compare and contrast one theory with
  another
• How can these theories be applied to teaching
  practice

12
Student as Learners

• Student Development and the Learning Process
  Important theorists
• Albert Bandura
• Jerome Bruner
• John Dewey
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky
• Howard Gardner
• Abraham Maslow
• B.F. Skinner

13
Student as Learners

• Albert Bandura
• Social learning theory Theory that emphasizes
  learning through observation of others
• Social cognitive theory Theory that adds
  concerns with cognitive factors such as beliefs,
  self-perceptions, and expectation to social
  learning theory

14
Student as Learners

• Albert Bandura
• Social cognitive theory distinguishes between
  enactive and vicarious learning
• Enactive learning is learning by doing and
  experiencing the consequences of your actions
  (self-regulation of behavior, goal directed
  behavior, self-monitoring)
• Vicarious learning is learning by observing
  others

15
Student as Learners

• Albert Bandura
• Four elements of observational learning
• Attention
• Retention
• Production
• Motivation and reinforcement

16
Student as Learners

• Jerome Bruner
• Promoted the concept of discovery learning by
  encouraging teachers to give students more
  opportunity to learn on their own.
• Discovery learning encourages students to think
  for themselves and discover how knowledge is
  constructed
• Discovery learning is learning in which students
  construct an understanding on their own
• Related to Piaget and Deweys views

17
Student as Learners

• John Dewey
• Viewed problem solving according to the
  scientific method as the proper way to think and
  the most effective teaching method
• Schools should teach learners how to solve
  problems and inquire/interact with their natural
  and social environments
• Every learner attempts to explore and understand
  his/her environment

18
Student as Learners

• Jean Piaget
• Organization ongoing process of arranging
  information and experience into mental systems or
  categories
• Schemes mental systems of categories and
  experiences
• Adaptation adjustment to the environment

19
Student as Learners

• Jean Piaget
• Adaptation adjustment to the environment
• Assimilation fitting new information into
  existing schemes
• Accommodation altering existing schemes or
  creating new ones in response to new information
• Equilibration search for mental balance between
  cognitive schemes and information from the
  environment

20
Student as Learners

• Jean Piaget
• Operations actions a person carries out by
  thinking them through instead of literally
  performing the actions
• Four stages of cognitive development
• Sensorimotor 0-2 yrs involves the senses and
  motor activity
• Preoperational 2-7 yrs stage before a child
  masters logical mental operations
• Concrete operational 7-11 yrs mental tasks
  tied to concrete objects and situations
• Formal operational 11-adult mental tasks
  involving abstract thinking and coordination of a
  number of variables

21
Student as Learners

• Jean Piaget
• Goal of education should be to help children
  learn how to learn
• Importance of developmentally appropriate
  education
• Individuals construct their own understandings
• Value of play

22
Student as Learners

• Lev Vygotsky
• Sociocultural theory emphasizes role in
  development of cooperative dialogues between
  children and more knowledgeable members of
  society
• Children learn the culture of their community
  (ways of thinking behaving) through interactions

23
Student as Learners

• Lev Vygotsky
• Zone of Proximal Development phase at which a
  child can master a task if given appropriate help
  and support
• Scaffolding support for learning and problem
  solving. The support could be anything that
  allows the student to grow in independence as a
  learner
• Private talk

24
Student as Learners

• How might a teacher apply some of Leve Vygotskys
  ideas about scaffolding and direct instruction in
  the classroom?

25
Student as Learners

• Howard Gardner
• Theory of Multiple Intelligences
• Linguistic (verbal)
• Musical,
• Spatial,
• Logical-mathematical
• Bodily-kinesthetic (movement)
• Interpersonal (understanding others)
• Intrapersonal (understanding self)
• Naturalist

26
Student as Learners

• What does Gardners work on multiple
  intelligences suggest about planning instruction?

27
Student as Learners

• Abraham Maslow
• Humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from
  lower-level needs for survival and safety to
  higher-level needs for intellectual achievement
  and finally self-actualization
• Self-actualization fulfilling ones potential

28
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
29
Student as Learners

• What does Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs
  suggest for motivation for learning in the
  classroom?

30
Student as Learners

• B.F. Skinner
• Operant conditioning a form of learning whereby
  a response increases in frequency as a result of
  its being followed by reinforcement
• When behaviors are followed by desirable
  consequences, they tend to increase in frequency
• When behaviors do not produce results, they
  typically decrease and may even disappear
  altogether

31
Student as Learners

• Erik Erikson
• Eight stages of psychosocial development
• Developmental crisis conflict between a
  positive alternative and a potentially unhealthy
  alternative
• The way in which the individual resolves each
  crisis will have a lasting effect on that
  persons self-image and view of society

32
Student as Learners

• Erik Eriksons 8 Stages
• Trust vs. mistrust
• Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Industry vs. inferiority
• Identity vs. role confusion
• Intimacy vs. isolation
• Generativity vs. stagnation
• Ego integrity vs. despair

33
Student as Learners

• Lawrence Kohlberg
• Moral dilemmas situations in which no choice is
  clearly and indisputably right
• Stages of moral reasoning
• Level I Preconventional Moral Reasoning
  judgment is based own person needs and others
  rules
• Level 2 Conventional Moral Reasoning judgment
  is based on others approval, family
  expectations, traditional values, laws of
  society, and loyalty to country

34
Student as Learners

• Lawrence Kohlberg
• Stages of moral reasoning
• Level 3 Postconventional Moral Reasoning
  social contract and universal ethics
• Moral reasoning the thinking process involved
  in judgments about questions of right and wrong

35
Student as Learners

• Carol Gilligan
• Proposed a different sequence of moral
  development, an Ethic of Care
• Individuals move from a focus on self-interest to
  moral reasoning based on commitment to specific
  individuals and relationships, and then to the
  highest level of morality based on the principles
  of responsibilities and care for all people

36
Student as Learners

• Constructivism a theoretical perspective that
  proposes that learners construct a body of
  knowledge from their experiencesknowledge that
  may or may not be an accurate representation of
  external reality.

37
Student as Learners

• Metacognition Ones knowledge and beliefs about
  ones own cognitive processes, and ones
  resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive
  processes to maximize learning and memory
• Knowledge about our own thinking processes

38
Student as Learners

• Schemata (plural for schema) In contemporary
  cognitive psychology, an organized body of
  knowledge about a specific topic
• Basic structures for organizing information,
  concepts

39
Student as Learners

• Transfer A phenomenon whereby something that an
  individual has learned at one time affects how
  the individual learns or performs in a later
  situation
• Influence of previously learned material on new
  material

40
Student as Learners

• Blooms Taxonomy a taxonomy in which six
  learning tasks, varying in degrees of complexity,
  are identified for the cognitive domain
• Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
  synthesis, and evaluation

41
Student as Learners

• Make sure you can recognize the differences
  between lower-order and higher-order thinking in
  classroom activities, using Blooms taxonomy.

42
Student as Learners

• Intrinsic motivation the internal desire to
  perform a particular task motivation associated
  with activities that are their own reward
• Extrinsic motivation motivation promoted by
  factors external to the individual and unrelated
  to the task being performed motivation created
  by external factors (reward or punishment)

43
Students as Diverse Learners

• Learning styles characteristic approaches to
  learning and studying

44
Students as Diverse Learners

• Performance Modes
• Concrete operational thinking (Piaget)
• Late elementary to middle school
• Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and
  situations
• Visual and aural learners

45
Students as Diverse Learners

• Gender differences
• Cultural expectations and styles

46
Areas of exceptionality in student learning

• Visual and perceptual difficulties
• Special physical or sensory challenges
• Learning disabilities
• Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) Attention
  Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Functional mental retardation

47
Legislation and institutional responsibilities
relating to exceptional students

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
  (IDEA)
• Inclusion
• Mainstreaming
• Least Restrictive Environment
• IEP whats included?

48
Approaches for accommodating various learning
styles, intelligences, or exceptionalities

• Differentiated instruction
• Alternative assessments
• Testing modifications

49
Student learning is influenced by

• Individual experiences
• Individual talents
• Prior learning
• Language
• Culture
• Family
• Community Values

50
Consider

• Multicultural backgrounds
• Age-appropriate knowledge and behavior
• The student culture at the school
• Family backgrounds
• Linguistic patterns and differences
• Cognitive patterns and differences
• Social and emotional issues

51
Lets practice
52
Identify and describe a strength and/or weakness
in

• a lesson plan for meeting needs of individual
  students with identified special needs, as
  described in the case
• Based on IEP goals?
• Age/level appropriate?
• Achievable?
• Accommodations needed?
• Other?

53
Identify and describe a strength and/or weakness
in

• the interaction between the teacher and students
  in terms of culturally responsive teaching
• Is teacher aware of cultural implications?
• Does teacher appear to value culture?
• Does teacher include families?
• Does teacher understand culture?

54
Propose a strategy for

• helping students with ADD problems stay on task
• improving performance of students who dont do
  well on homework, original compositions or other
  assignments
• helping students for whom English isnt the first
  language build literacy skills and improve in
  academic areas

55
Propose a strategy for

• helping students see issues from different points
  of view
• adapting instruction and/or assessment for an
  individual student with identified needs
• building positive relationships with a student
  who is very turned off to school

56
Propose a strategy for

• meeting the needs of a wide range of students
  (especially students with learning difficulties
  and students who are accelerated)

57
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Correlational relationship the extent to which
  two variables are related to each other, such
  that when one variable increases, the other
  either increases or decreases in a somewhat
  predictable manner

58
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Causal relationship explains why behaviors
  occurs

59
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Learned helplessness a general belief that one
  is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has
  little or no control of the environment

60
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Self-efficacy the belief that one is capable of
  executing certain behaviors or reaching certain
  goals

61
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Reinforcement the act of following a particular
  response with a reinforcer and thereby increasing
  the frequency of that response

62
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Positive reinforcement a consequence that
  brings about the increase of a behavior through
  the presentation (rather than removal) of a
  stimulus.

63
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Negative reinforcement a consequence that
  brings about the increase of a behavior through
  the removal (rather than presentation) of a
  stimulus.

64
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Shaping a process of reinforcing successively
  closer and closer approximations of a desired
  terminal behavior

65
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Extinction In classical conditioning, the
  eventual disappearance of a conditioned response
  as a result of the conditioned stimulus being
  repeatedly presented alone
• In operant conditioning, the eventual
  disappearance of a response that is no longer
  being reinforced

66
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Punishment a consequence that decreases the
  frequency of the response it follows

67
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Continuous reinforcement reinforcing a response
  every time it occurs

68
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment

• Intermittent reinforcement reinforcing a
  response only occasionally, with some occurrences
  of the response going unreinforced

69
Instruction and Assessment

• Instructional Strategies
• The major cognitive processes associated with
  student learning, including
• Critical thinking
• Creative thinking
• Higher-order thinking
• Inductive and deductive thinking
• Problem-structuring and problem-solving
• Invention
• Memorization and recall

70
Instruction and Assessment

• Major categories of instructional strategies,
  including
• Cooperative learning
• Direct instruction
• Discover learning
• Whole-group discussion
• Independent study
• Interdisciplinary instruction
• Concept mapping
• Inquiry method
• Questioning

71
Instruction and Assessment

• Direct Instruction
• Madeline Hunters Effective Teaching Model
• David Ausubels Advance Organizers
• Mastery learning
• Demonstrations
• Mnemonics
• Note-taking
• Outlining
• Use of visual aids

72
Instruction and Assessment

• Student-Centered Models
• Inquiry Model
• Discovery learning
• Cooperative learning (pair-share, jigsaw, STAF,
  teams, games, tournament)
• Collaborative Learning
• Concept models (concept development, concept
  attainment, concept mapping)
• Discussion models
• Laboratories
• Project-based learning
• Simulations

73
Instruction and Assessment

• Critical thinking Evaluating the accuracy and
  worth of information of arguments.
• Creative thinking New and original behavior
  yields an appropriate and productive result.
• High-order thinking Thought that involves going
  beyond information specifically learned (e.g.,
  application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation).

74
Instruction and Assessment

• Inductive thinking Formulating general
  principles based on knowledge of examples and
  details
• Deductive thinking Drawing conclusions by
  applying rules of principles logically moving
  from a general rule or principle to a specific
  solution
• Problem solving Creating new solutions for
  problems

75
Instruction and Assessment

• Inquiry method Approach in which the teacher
  presents a puzzling situation and students solve
  the problem by gathering data and testing their
  conclusions
• Discovery learning - Bruners approach, in which
  students work on their own to discover basic
  principles
• Simulations The idea that skills and knowledge
  are tied to simulation in which they were learned
  and difficult to apply in new settings.

76
Instruction and Assessment

• Cooperative Learning An approach to instruction
  whereby students work with their classmates to
  achieve group goals and help on another learn.
• Direct Instruction An approach to instruction
  that uses a variety of techniques (brief
  explanations, teacher questioning , rapid pacing,
  guided and independent practice) to promote
  learning of basic skills.

77
Instruction and Assessment

• Discovery Learning An approach to instruction
  whereby students develop an understanding of a
  topic, through firsthand interaction with the
  physical or social environment.
• Concept Mapping A diagram of concepts within an
  instructional unit and the interrelationships
  among them.

78
Instruction and Assessment

• Madeline Hunter Effective Teaching Model
• Get students set to learn
• Provide information effectively
• Check for understanding and give guided practice
• Allow for independent practice

79
Instruction and Assessment

• Mastery Learning An approach to instruction
  whereby students learn one topic thoroughly
  before moving to a more difficult one.
• Mnemonics A special memory aid or trick
  designed to help students learning and remember a
  specific piece of information.

80
Instruction and Assessment

• Methods for enhancing student learning through
  the use of a variety of resources and materials
• Computers, Internet resources, Web pages, e-mail
• Audio-visual technologies such as videotapes and
  compact discs
• Local experts
• Primary documents and artifacts
• Field trips
• Libraries
• Service Learning

81
Instruction and Assessment

• Techniques for planning instruction to meet
  curriculum goals, including the incorporation of
  learning theory, subject matter, curriculum
  development and student development
• National and state learning standards
• State and local curriculum frameworks
• State and local curriculum guides
• Scope and sequence in specific disciplines
• Units and lessons
• Behavioral objectives affective, cognitive,
  psychomotor
• Learner objectives and outcomes

82
Instruction and Assessment

• Techniques for creating effective bridges between
  curriculum goals and students experiences
• Modeling
• Guided practice
• Independent practice, including homework
• Transitions
• Activating students prior knowledge
• Anticipating preconceptions
• Encouraging exploration and problem-solving
• Building new skills on those previously acquired

83
Instruction and Assessment

• Measurement theory and assessment-related issues
• Types of assessments
• Standardized tests Tests given, usually
  nationwide, under uniform procedures
• Norm-referenced Assessment of students
  achievement in relation to one another
• Criterion-referenced Testing in which scores
  are compared to a set performance standard
• Achievement tests Standardized test measuring
  how much students have learned in a given content
  area.

84
Instruction and Assessment

• Aptitude tests Tests meant to predict future
  performance
• Structured observations
• Anecdotal notes
• Assessment of prior knowledge reminding
  students of information they have already learned
  relative to a new topic
• Student responses during a lesson
• Portfolios A systematic collection of a
  students work over a lengthy period of time
• Essays written to prompts
• Journals
• Self-evaluation The process of evaluating ones
  own performance or behavior
• Performance assessment Assessment in which
  students demonstrate their knowledge and skills
  in a nonwritten fashion

85
Instruction and Assessment

• Characteristics of Assessments
• Validity The extent to which an assessment
  instrument actually measures what it is intended
  to measure.
• Reliability The extent to which an assessment
  instrument yields consistent information about
  the knowledge, skills, and abilities one is
  trying to measure
• Norm-referenced A score that indicates how a
  students performance on an assessment compares
  with the average performance of other students
  (I.e., with the performance of a norm group)

86
Instruction and Assessment

• Criterion-referenced A test score that
  specifically indicates what students know and can
  do.
• Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores.
  It is calculated by adding all scores and then
  dividing by the total number of people who have
  obtained those scores.
• Median Middle score in a group of scores
• Mode Most frequently occurring score
• Sampling strategy
• Scoring assessments
• Analytical scoring Scoring students
  performance on an assessment by evaluating
  various aspects of their performance separately

87
Instruction and Assessment

• Holistic scoring Summarizing students
  performance on an assessment with a single score
• Rubrics A list of components that performance
  on an assessment task should ideally include
  used to guide the scoring of students responses
• Reporting assessment results
• Percentile rank A test score that indicates the
  percentage of people in the norm group getting a
  raw score less than or equal to a particular
  students raw score.
• Stanine A standard score with a mean of 5 and a
  standard deviation of 2 it is always reported as
  a whole number

88
Instruction and Assessment

• Mastery levels
• Raw score A test score based solely on the
  number or point value of correctly answered items
• Grade equivalent score Measure of grade level
  based on comparison with norming samples for each
  grade
• Standard deviation A statistic that reflects
  how close together or far apart a set of scores
  are and thereby indicates the variability of the
  scores
• Standard error of measurement A statistic
  estimating the amount of error likely to be
  present in a particular score on a test or other
  assessment instrument
• Scaled Score

89
Instruction and Assessment

• Uses of assessments
• Formative evaluation An evaluation conducted
  during instruction to facilitate students
  learning
• Summative evaluation An evaluation conducted
  after instruction is completed and used to assess
  students final achievement
• Diagnostic evaluation

90
Communication Techniques

• Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal
  communication techniques
• The effect of cultural and gender differences on
  communications in the classroom
• Types of questions that can stimulate discussion
  in different ways for particular purposes
• Probing for learner understanding
• Helping students articulate their ideas and
  thinking processes
• Promoting risk-taking and problem-solving
• Facilitating factual recall
• Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking
• Stimulating curiosity
• Helping students to question

91
Profession and Community

• The reflective practitioner
• Types of resources available for professional
  development and learning
• Professional literature
• Colleagues
• Professional associations
• Professional development activities

92
Profession and Community

• Why personal reflection on teaching practices is
  critical, and approaches that can be used to
  reflect and evaluate
• The larger community
• The role of the school as a resource to the
  larger community
• Factors in the students environment outside of
  school (family circumstances, community
  environments, health and economic conditions)
  that may influence students life and learning
• Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians
  and leaders in the community in the educational
  process

93
Profession and Community

• Major laws related to students rights and
  teacher responsibilities
• Equal education
• Appropriate education for handicapped
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Appropriate treatment of students
• Reporting in situations related to possible child
  abuse