Three Doctrines

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Three Doctrines

• Buddhism?Chan/Zen and Pure Land
• Daoism?Sectarian Daoism
• Confucianism?Neo-Confucianism (The Learning of
  the Way, ?? Dàoxué )
• To reestablish the superiority of Confucianism
• Rejuvenation of the Confucian tradition and
  incorporation of aspects of Buddhist and Daoist
  doctrines and practices

2
The revival of Confucianism

• Neo-Confucianism or The learning of the Way
  represents a recreation and revival of
  Confucianism (?? rú xué )
• Han Yu of the Tang is regarded as the forerunner
• He considered Dao and De combines Ren and Yi
• While continuing to focus on the improvement of
  society and government, Song Neo-Confucianists
  also made effort to redefine human nature,
  humanities, and its relations with the cosmos

3

• Neo-Confucianism is characterized by the
  metaphysics and intellectualism in its discourse
  on human nature (xing), and humaneness (ren), and
  the Principle (li).
• Neo-Confucianism can be the sum of what these
  terms stand for or one of them
• the Learning of the Way (Daoxue), and the
  Learning of the Sage(s) or the Way to Sagehood,
  the Learning of Principle (Lixue),

4
Neo-/Confucianism

• Confucianism
• Focuses on the way of the sage kings or Way of
  the noble person (junzi) as social and political
  leader.

• Neo-Confucianism
• Aspires to a spiritual ideal of sagehood for
  everyone, achievable by methods of cultivation
  taught by the Five Masters in the Northern Song
  and by Zhu Xi (image) in the Southern Song

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• The Five Masters in the Northern Song
• Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073)
• Zhang Zai (1020-1077)
• Shao Yong (1011-1077)
• Cheng brothers
• Cheng Yi (1033-1107)
• Cheng Hao (1032-1085)
• Zhu Xi in the Southern Song synthesizer

Confucius, by Ma Yuan, Southern Song, National
Palace Museum, Beijing
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Three Friends of Cold Seasons Pine, Bamboo, and
Plum by Zhao Mengjian, Southern Song. Shanghai
Metropolitan Museum
Cheng (Cheng) Brothers Cheng Hao (left) and
Cheng Yi (Right)
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Shao Yong

• Known as Mr. Happiness and one who predicted that
  southerners were to be dominant in court
• Fascinated with numerological of the book of
  Changes (Yijing), he considered the dao as the
  basis of Heaven and Earth, which were basis of
  everything else.
• The dao was both the creator of the world and the
  source of the good in human nature

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Zhou Dunyi Taiji

• Known for his Explanation of the Diagram of the
  Great Ultimate (or Supreme Polarity) (Taiji
  tushuo)
• The Explanation talks about the Great Ultimate
  (Taiji), which is a cosmogonic theory concerning
  the origin of all beings
• It represents cosmic creativity that generate all
  beings
• And human being is its highest manifestation

• Central theme of his Explanation
• Integration of the metaphysical,
  psycho-physical, and ethical dimensions of the
  mind
• Integration of Confucian ethics and Daoist
  naturalism

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• Zhou Dunyi regards that sincerity (cheng) is
  the substance of the universe, and inner
  Principle (li) is the source of all virtures

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• The Great Ultimate generates yang through
  activity, then it becomes tranquil when the
  activity reaches its limit. Through tranquility,
  it generates yin.
• Alternation and transformation of activity and
  tranquility, yin and yang give rise to Five
  Agents (Phases)
• Zhou It is man alone who receives (the Five
  Agents) in their highest excellence, and
  therefore he is the most intelligent. His
  physical form appears, and his spirit develops
  consciousness. The five moral principles of his
  nature (humanity or ren, righteousness,
  propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness) are aroused
  by, and react to, the external world and engage
  in activity good and evil are distinguished and
  human affairs take place.

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Zhang Zai and Ren

• Known for his Western Inscription (Ximing) and
  Correct Youthful Ignorance (Zhengmeng)
• A new notion or interpretation of Ren,
• Ren should encompass all human beings, Heaven and
  Earthall should join together as though
  creatures of one flesh and blood, as appropriate
  to their kinship
• All are constituent elements of a family system

Yuan Lu Tu (Monkey and Egret)
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• A new notion of Qi
• Zhang Zai explained that qi (material force)
  existed at the beginning of the world and
  consolidated itself into matter
• All matter arises from qi and dissolves into qi
  and then arises again
• The interaction of the qi of Heaven and the qi of
  Earth creates all things that exists.
• Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and
  even such a small creature as I finds an intimate
  place in their midst. Therefore that which
  extends throughout the universe I regard as my
  body and that which directs the universe I
  consider as my nature. All people are my brothers
  and sisters, and all things are my companions

13

• Zhang Zais all people consists of all people
  of the world, including the exhausted, sick,
  handicapped, maimed, widowed, and orphaned.
• He believes
• Wealth, honor, blessing, and benefits are meant
  for the enrichment of my life, while poverty,
  humble station, and sorrow are meant to help me
  to fulfillment .
• In life I follow and serve Heaven and Earth.
  In death, I will be at peace.

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Cheng Brothers and the Principle

• Cheng Hao
• Represents the idealistic School of Mind (xinxue)
• Cheng Yi
• Represents the School of Principle (lixue), known
  for stressing the Heavenly Principle (tianli)
• Li is the foundation of all truth and values

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• Cheng Hao
• All things possess Principle
• Cheng Yi
• All things under heaven can be understood in the
  light of their Principle
• Even blade of grass and every tree possess
  principle and should be examined
• Principle of one thing is one with Principle of
  all things, that is there is a unity of
  principle and diversity of its particularizations
  
• Principle is one but its manifestations are many

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Principle and Human Fulfillment

• Knowledge comes from the apprehension of the
  Principle in things (gewu)
• Human fulfillment can be achieved by a
  combination of two approaches
• Investigation of the principles in things
• Introspection of principles in the mind
• Two methods serve this aim
• Study the classics, in which key principles were
  expressed
• Examine ones mind/heart through quiet sitting

Ye he hua (probably what is called Coco
magnolia today), by anonymous, Southern Song.
Shanghai Metropolitan Museum
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Buddhism in the Song

• Enjoyed the support and protection of many Song
  emperors, ministers, and ranking officials
• Ordination of monks increased dramatically
• Central government sponsored the printing of the
  Buddhist Canon (Dazang jing)
• Carved on130,000 woodblocks in 983
• Many temples were recognized as official
  temples, sanctified because they were regarded
  as possessing magical power.

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• Portraits of emperors were placed in the large
  Buddhist (and Daoist) temples in Kaifeng
• In 1067, the government introduced the sale of
  the monks ordination certificates, thus
  creating many untonsured monks
• Buddhist establishments engaged in a wide range
  of economic activities
• Operating oil presses, water-powered mills,
  pawnshops, hostels
• Buddhists owned large estates and leased small
  plots to tenants

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• Monasteries flourished and their numbers
  increased and reached 400,000 monks and 61,000
  nuns in 1221, as compared with 260,000 monks and
  nuns registered in 845.
• Large Chan monasteries and pure land societies
  emerged
• The joint practice of Chan/Zen and Pure Land
  Buddhism became common in Song times
• Buddhists produced sutras, such as the Sutra of
  Parental Love, to promote Buddhist concept of
  filial piety and counter anti-Buddhist diatribes

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• Two originally Indian Buddhist deities were
  transformed into Chinese deities
• Indian Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara was turned into
  Guanyin (one who observes the sounds of the
  world)
• Amitabha Buddha was called Amituo Fo

Reproduction of Guanyin originally painted by
Song painter, NPM, Taipei
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• Cult of Guanyin resulted in Guanyin arts that
  depict Guanyins many manifestations
• The Water and Moon Guanyin
• The White-robed Guanyin
• The Fish Basket Guanyin

Guanyin, by Fachang, better known as Muxi,
Southern Song monk, Daidoku ji, Kyoto
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• Guanyin was worshiped throughout East Asia as
• the Goddess of Mercy
• the protector of all in distress and misery
• the patron goddess of mothers
• the bestower of children

The Seated Water and Moon Guanyin, Anonymous,
Song Dynasty, Nelson Museum of Art, Kansas
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• Transformation of other Indian Buddhist deities
• Maitreya, the future Buddha, or the Buddha
  yet-to-come, became the Chinese Milefo, the
  Laughing Buddha, a jovial pot-bellied figure,
  often regarded as the deification of the
  Hemp-bag Bonze, or Cloth Sack Monk (Budai
  heshang)

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by Fachang, Song monk
25
Eight Eminent Monks by Liang Kai, Southern
Song, Shanghai Art Museum, a series of eight
paintings Part 1 Scholar-officials paying
tribute to an eminent monk
Muxis Bodhidharma and Six Persimmons
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Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountain Left
Anonymous, Southern Song, The Cleveland Museum of
Art Right Liang Kai, Southern Song, Tokyo
National Museum
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Pure Land Society, anonymous, Southern Song,
later copies of Li Goglins works, Nanjing City
Museum
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Left, Laozi, by Fachang, Song Dynasty
Right Five Hundred Arhats Meditating in a Cave
by Zhou Jichang and Lin Tinggui, Song Dynasty.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
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Left Second of the Sixteen Arhats (Chi.
Lohan), Kanakavatsa (Skt.) by Zhao Qiong,
Southern Song, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Right Sixteen Arhats Subdued Dragons, by Lu
Xinzhong, Song Dynasty Shokoku ji, Kyoto, Japan
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Daoism in the Song

• Continued to enjoy imperial patronage and
  consolidate its status
• Emperors Taizong, Zhenzong, and Huizong were
  among the most supportive
• Emperor Taizong
• Worshiped Northern Emperor (Beidi) and built the
  Daoist Temple of Northern Emperor in Kaifeng
• Built the Palace of Highest Purity and Great
  Peace (Shangqing taiping gong) to celebrate
  Daoist deity General Black Killer, the Perfected
  Lord.

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• Emperor Zhenzong
• Prime minister Wang Qinruo encouraged the emperor
  to support Daoism, claiming that a Heavenly
  Text had been bestowed on him, which proved the
  divine origin of the imperial household
• Zhenzong, went up to Mt. Tai to perform the
  sacrificial ceremonies.

Emperor Zhenzong (r.998-1022)
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• After the sacrifice, Zhenzong began his
  investiture of the Daoist gods, making the Jade
  Emperor the tutelary god of the Song dynasty.
  Jade Emperor became the emperor of heaven, Jade
  Emperor. Yuhuang dadi, or Yudi
• He granted The Perfected Lord the title of
  Supporter of Sageliness and Protector of Virtue
  (Yisheng zhenjun) and devoted himself to the Lord
• Built the Palace of Jadelike Purity (Yuqing
  gong), the largest imperial building, in the
  capital and hundreds of Daoist temples throughout
  the empire

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• Emperor Huizong
• Probably the most fervent private and public
  supporter of the Daoist philosophical tradition
  and magical practices in Chinese history
• Imagined himself a Daoist deity
• Used Daoist priests as religious advisors, among
  them Lin Lingsu introduced a new Daoist school
  called the Divine Empyrean Daoism (Shenxiao)
• Constructed the Sacred Peaks of Longevity (Genyue)

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Important New School of Daoism

• Other than the Divine Empyrean School, there was
  the Integral Realization or Perfect Truth School
  (Quanzhen jiao), which pushed the concept of
  three teachings in onethe three religions formed
  a family.
• The founder, Wang Chongyang, taught his disciples
  to study the Daode jing, the Heart Sutra (Xin
  jing), and the Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao
  jing)

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The New Role of Daoism

• The status of Daoism in the Song
• managed to capture the attention of large
  portions of the official and literati class
• became the religion of the townspeople
• The Ten Kings and Their Tribunals

(Right Four of the Ten Kings of Chinese
Purgatory, by Lu Xinzhong, Southern Song)
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The Ten Kings and Purgatory
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New Daoist immortals and gods

• Legendary Daoist heroes and immortals
  (transcendents) were assimilated in local cults
• Eight Daoist immortals

Right one of the Eight Immortals, Tieguai Li
(Iron-Crutch Li ), by Yan Hui, Yuan Dynasty,
Chion ji (???), Kyoto
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Daoist gods and immortals

• Daoist gods and immortals proliferated
• Daoist gods were recognized by Song emperors
• Legendary figures became popular immortals

Immortal Iron-crutch Li by Yan Hui, Yuan,
National Palace Museum, Beijing
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Daoists as Ritual Masters

• Daoists assumed the role of ritual masters,
  becoming administers of the ritual in honor of
  different Daoist gods or immortals
• Served as a mediator between Daoism and the
  possessed medium of local cults and village
  religion
• Acted as spirit medium who spoke to the faithful
  and performed spirit writing to answer peoples
  requests
• Attempted to dominate rituals associated with
  spirit-possession and spirit medium

Mask used in modern time for the Nuo dance and
ritual, 2002, Jiangxi
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Rituals in Popular Religion

• Rituals revolving around spirit-possession became
  an important portion of religious practice in
  Chinese society, particularly during and after
  the Song dynasty.
• Two types of spirit-possession
• Ritualized
• Spirit-medium
• Daoist and Buddhist exorcism
• Funeral rites
• Non-ritualized
• All common cases of spirit-possession

Festival for Exorcising Demons Causing Plague
Anonymous, Song
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The Social Role of Ritual Masters

• Medium/Surrogate of the deity, generally referred
  to as general or marshal, of a specific
  lineage of therapeutic movement
• Represented/controlled the deity by means of
  registers, talismans, spells, and seals
• Two types of ritual masters
• Clerical masters Initiated ones who were members
  of Daoist organization, e.g., Bai Yuchan
• Lay masters outside of Daoist organization

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Functions of Ritual Masters

• As exorcists fashi
• Provided exorcistic services to cure disease,
  expel ghost , demon, and spirit
• Who were these fashi?
• Daoist priests
• Lay practitioners
• Many of them officials
• Spirit-mediums (wu)
• Method of exorcism
• Use of mantra (spell) and mudra (hand-seal)
• Sword, mirror, talismans, registers

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Clientele of Ritual Masters

• Two common groups
• Uneducated, unsophisticated local people like
  many ritual masters themselves
• Bureaucratic and economic elite serviced by
  highly literate, worldly, and mobile
  practitioners.
• Many of them ranking officials and their family
  members
• Students and literati of nonofficial status
• One special group
• Members of imperial family, serviced by their
  relatives who were practitioners of therapeutic
  rituals

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Official Exorcists and Social Order

• High official practicing therapeutic rituals or
  exorcism assumed the role of Daoist ritual master
  and had other purposes than curing illness
• Terminated demonic cults and practices
• Suppressed spirit-mediums and the like
• Forms of suppression included corporal
  punishment, tattooing, exile, and conversion to
  the agricultural or medical professions
• Sorcery, witchcraft, heresies (particularly
  Vegetarian Devil-Worshipping Sects)
• Other perverse cults (yinci)

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Ritual Masters as a Social Class

• Ritual masters emerged as a social class as a
  result of
• assimilation of Daoism and local cults after a
  period of conflict and tension
• Commercialization and urbanization
• Created opportunities for Daoist ritual masters
  to expand their functions
• fostered the awareness of the existence of new
  healing and therapeutic experts

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National deity cults

• The Wenchang (Wen-chang) cult
• Wenchang A local god turned into a national
  deity
• Wenchang, the God of Literature
• Flourished during the Song and established as
  patron deity of the civil service examinations
• God administering rewards and punishments based
  on moral tracts

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The God Wenchang and His Powers

• Wenchang was promoted by a lay persons writing,
  the Book of Transformations
• A lengthy prosimetric auto-hagiography of the god
• The book conveys its didactic messages by showing
  the gods moral conduct, virtues, and rewards and
  punishments he dealt out as a god
• The book shows that Wenchang possesses the
  following powers
• Controlling rain, wind, fire, flood
• Lightening/thunder is his special tribute casts
  thunder shuttles to destroy evildoers
• Can summon divine troops
• Can fly and manifest himself at any time and
  place

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The Formation of Wenchang

• A nature deity the wonder worker Martial
  protector patron of the examinations the judge
  of morality evangelist provider of progeny
• The Viper
• Zhang E-zi (Chang E-tzu)
• The God of Zitong (Tzu-tung) Transcendent Zhang
  (Chang)
• The Divine Lord of Zitong (Tzu-tung)
• Wenchang constellation

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The Spread of the Cult

• Originally a local cult in Sichuan (Szechwuan),
  it was spread by
• Govt officials and merchants
• religious professionals
• examination candidates
• Migrants
• Spread from a locale to national center and
  eventually became a national cult
• The quick spread was due to
• Booming trade
• Émigré communities
• Public demand for a deity capable of curing
  illness
• The gods ongoing revelation

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Wenchangs Powers

• Commander of the divine intelligence service
• Receives reports from every tutelary deity and
  city or mountain god
• Punishes wicked local villains and officials
• Subjugates the plague demons
• Provides progeny
• Supervises the civil service examinations,
  determining the success or failure of candidates

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Some Popular Song Rituals

• Textual evidence of some most popular traditions
  and lineages of therapeutic/healing movement
• Thunder rites
• The Rites of the Celestial Heart (Tianxin
  zhengfa)
• The Rites of the Five Thunder Gods (Wulei fa), or
  the Thunder Magic lineage

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Bai Yuchan (Pai Yu-chan, 1134-1229)

• A Daoist trained as an expert of physiological
  alchemy and Daoist Thunder Rites
• Often referred to as a transcendent, teacher, of
  transcendent official rather than ritual master
  of Daoist master
• Despite this, he still acted as an expert in
  ritual arts
• Active in religious discourse with scholars and
  religious personalities
• Also known as a poet and calligrapher
• Lived in a hermitage on Mt. Wuyi (Wi-i) but
  remained actively in contact with lay persons and
  officials