Chapter 02 - History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Science

1

• Choose to view chapter section with a click on
  the section heading.
• The History of Oceanography Why Study It?
• Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.- 800
  A.D.)
• The Middle Ages (800 A.D. - 1400)
• European Voyages of Discovery (1400 - 1700)
• The Birth of Marine Science (1700 1900)
• Twentieth-Century Marine Science

Chapter Topic Menu
2
The History of Ocean Explorationand Marine
Sciences
The History of Oceanography Why Study It?
Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
3
The History of Oceanography - Why Study It?

• Three very good reasons to learn the history of
  oceanography
• The history of oceanography is connected to the
  worldsoverall history.
• Oceanographys past helps us understand why and
  howpeople apply marine sciences today.
• It is interesting.

The History of Oceanography Why Study It?
Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
4
The History of Oceanography - Why Study It?

• The history of oceanography can be divided into
  four stages
• Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. - 800
  A.D.)
• The Middle Ages (800 - 1400)
• European Voyages of Discovery (1400 - 1700)
• The Birth of Marine Science (1700 - 1900)

The History of Oceanography Why Study It?
Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
5
Ancient Uses and Explorations(5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-4 to 2-15
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Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring

• Three primary reasons for early civilization to
  interact with the ocean
• To obtain food.
• Trade with other cultures.
• To discover new lands.
• The earliest recorded sea voyage appears to be
  3200 B.C. under the auspices of Egyptian Pharaoh
  Snefru.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-4 to 2-5
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Ancient PhoenicianExplorations and Discoveries

• The Phoenicians contributed to ocean exploration
  by establishing the first trade routes throughout
  the Mediterranean, even as far north as Great
  Britain.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-5 to 2-6
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Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries

• The significance of Polynesian seafaring is that
  it is the earliest known regular, long-distance,
  open-ocean sailing beyond sight of land.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-7 to 2-8
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Ancient Polynesian Explorationsand Discoveries

• Spreading eastward from Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa,
  Polynesians settled islands in an area of about
  26 million square kilometers (10 million square
  miles).

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-7 to 2-8
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries

• The Greeks used references on shore to navigate.
  This is called piloting.
• As seafaring advanced they learned to use the
  sun, constellations, the North Star and sea
  conditions to navigate in the open ocean.
• The Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere, not flat.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries

• Pytheas noted that he could predict tides in the
  Atlantic based on the phases of the moon.
• He could determine how far North or South one was
  from the North Star by measuring the angle
  between the horizon and the North Star.
• This was a significant improvement in navigation.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries

• Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C.) is credited with two
  contributions
• He calculated the Earths circumference.
• He invented the first latitude/longitude system.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries

• In 127 B.C., Hipparchus improved Eratosthenes
  maps by inventing the regular grid system.
• In 450 B.C., Herodotus published a detailed
  history of Greeces struggles with the Persian
  Empire. This work was significant because it was
  one of the earliest published maps of the world
  the Greeks knew.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries

• In 63 B.C.-24 A.D., Strabo published a 17-book
  workcalled Geographic that contained a map
  expandingknowledge/accuracy about the world.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries

• In 100-168 A.D., Ptolemy developed the first
  known map to show a portion of the Earth as a
  sphere on flat paper.
• It showed latitude/longitude by dividing the grid
  into degrees, minutes, and seconds of the arc.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Measuring The Size of theEarth Ancient Greek
Style
Step 1 7.2/800km 360/Earth circumference in
km Step 2 7.2 x Earth circumference in km 800
km x 360 Step 3 - Solve Earth circumference in
km 800 km x 360/7.2 Earth circumference in
km 288,000 km/7.2 Earth circumference in km
40,000 km (24,840 miles)
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
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Latitude/Longitude System

• The purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping
  system is to identify specific locations on the
  Earths surface, even in the absence of landmarks.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
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Latitude/Longitude System

• Latitude Lines
• Also called parallels.
• Run east-west.
• 0º parallel is also called the equator.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System

• Longitude Lines
• Also called meridians.
• Run north-south.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System

• Prime Meridian is located on the longitude of the
  Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System

• Further Accuracy
• Degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes, minutes
  are subdivided into 60 seconds.
• Most scientists use decimal degrees.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. 800
A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
Titanic Location49.9469 W41.7325 NAs
expressed inDecimal Degrees
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The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-16 to 2-19
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The European Middle Ages

• Decline of the Roman Empire broke Europe into
  many isolated communities.
• This breakup hindered communication of scientific
  discoveries and knowledge.
• The Catholic Church rose to power, which may have
  influenced the communication of scientific
  discoveries.
• Also known as the Dark Ages because during this
  time further advancements in the knowledge of
  geography and science were suppressed in Europe.
• Little ocean exploration by Europeans was made,
  only trade continued.

The Middle Ages (800 A.D. 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-16
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Viking Explorations and Discoveries

• The Vikings were the only people with significant
  exploration taking place in Europe during the
  Dark Ages
• They established trade routes throughout Britain,
  Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and
  Central Asia.
• In the 9th century there was a global warming
  that freed the North Atlantic of ice allowing the
  Vikings to explore westward discovering Iceland,
  Greenland, and North America.

The Middle Ages (800 A.D. 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-17
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Chinese Explorations and Discoveries

• The Chinese were very active explorers during the
  Middle Ages and were responsible for many
  important contributions.
• Probably the most important of their discoveries
  was the magnetic compass dating about 1000 A.D.
  and in widespread use about 1125.
• Europes first reference to the compass was in
  1190 in a poem, but was not widely used until the
  1400s.

The Middle Ages (800 A.D. 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-18
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Chinese Explorations and Discoveries

• By the mid 1400s in China, shipbuildingwas well
  established.
• Chinese ships from that period had central
  rudders and watertight compartments these are
  part of todays modern ships.

The Middle Ages (800 A.D. 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-18
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European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-22
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The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around
Africa

• The period of 1400-1700 is called the
  Renaissance. A new interest in long ocean
  expeditions and travel in the 15th century was
  motivated by economics, politics and religion.
• Three explorers tried to establish a route to the
  East around Africa
• The first of these was Prince Henry the Navigator
  of Portugal in the early 1400s. He went down the
  west coast of Africa, but did not find a route
  around the Cape of Good Hope.
• The second was Bartholomeu Dias who completed a
  voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, but
  did not make it all the way to India.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around
Africa

• The third was Vasco da Gamma (1469-1524). He led
  the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope
  all the way to India.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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Exploration of the New World

• Like other explorers of the time, Christopher
  Columbus was seeking a route to Asia for trade
  with Europe.
• Columbus estimate of the worlds size was too
  small because he used Ptolemys estimates. This
  is why he thought he could reach India easier by
  sailing west instead of sailing east.
• When he landed on a Caribbean island, he thought
  hed reached India. It was later realized hed
  found a continent unknown to Europeans.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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Exploration of the New World

• Between 1454-1512, Amerigo Vespucci voyaged to
  South America.
• He explored much of the east coast, the mouth of
  the Amazon River, and is credited as the first
  European to recognize that South America was a
  new continent.
• The Americas are named in honor of Vespucci.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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Exploration of the New World

• In the early 1500s, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa led an
  expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama and
  discovered the Pacific Ocean. Balboa was the
  first European to sail in the Pacific.
• News that the Pacific lay beyond the Americas
  renewed the hope that one could sail around the
  world west-to-east.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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Exploration of the New World

• In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan
  led the first expedition to circumnavigate the
  world. He had five ships and about 260 men.
• Magellan died in the Philippines in a fight with
  islanders.
• One ship and 18 mencompleted thejourney in 1522.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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Exploration of the New World

• The second successful circumnavigation of the
  world was made in 1577 by Francis Drake.
• He left England for the New World with the
  purpose of raiding Spanish ships and settlements
  for treasure.
• Drake returned to England in 1580 where he was
  knighted for his exploits as well as for bringing
  back treasure and spices worth a fortune.

European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Cooks Expeditions

• The voyages of Captain James Cook receive credit
  as the first sea expeditions devoted to
  methodical, scientific oceanography
• His reports changed the western view of the
  world.
• He discovered Australia, New Zealand, many
  islands in the South Pacific, the Hawaiian
  Islands, the West Coast of the US and Canada, the
  Bering Strait and the Antarctic Circle.

The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Cooks Expeditions
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Cooks Expeditions

• A major contribution to Cooks voyageswas the
  invention of the chronometer
• In 1735, John Harrison invented a clockthat runs
  accurately at sea. This made itpossible to
  determine longitude accurately.

The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Harrison
H1
H4
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The United States Exploring Expedition

• Under command of Lt. Charles Wilkes, it was one
  of the first significant scientific expeditions
  launched by the US
• The objective was to explore the southern
  Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to collect
  specimens, and to map, illustrate and provide
  text to document their discoveries.

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The United States Exploring Expedition

• The most outstanding achievement of the US
  Exploring Expedition was proving the existence of
  Antarctica.

The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Matthew MauryFather of Physical Oceanography

• Between 1842-1855, Matthew Maury published many
  detailed works on sea navigation. He earned
  global acclaim for his work and his data was
  adopted worldwide
• In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of
  the Sea, which is now considered the first
  textbook on modern oceanography and he is
  remembered today as the father of physical
  oceanography.

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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle

• The Beagle began its five-year voyage with
  Charles Darwin as the ships naturalist in 1831.
  The H.M.S. Beagle ultimately circled the Earth.

The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle

• Darwin noted that coral grows in relatively
  shallow, warm, upper depths
• But, coral reefs extend deeper than coral grows.
  Darwin observed the massive reefs must form when
  the sea floor slowly sinks and coral grows upward
  from its base to remain in shallow water.

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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle

• Darwin is renowned for his theories on natural
  selection and the evolution of species.
• In 1859, he published On The Origin of Species By
  Means Of Natural Selection.

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The Challenger Expedition

• The Challenger expedition (1872-1876), is known
  and recognized as the first devoted entirely to
  marine science
• The two men responsible for the mission were
  Scottish professor, Sir CharlesWyville Thomson
  and Britishnaturalist, Sir John Murray.

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The Challenger Expedition

• Among its accomplishments and discoveries, the
  expedition
• Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000 meters
  (13,123 feet) 8,200 meters (26,900 feet) in the
  Marianas Trench.
• Captured biological samples in midwater and along
  the bottom with a towed device.
• Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts
  of the ocean, contrary to popular belief at the
  time.
• Sampled and illustrated plankton in
  varioushabitats and depths not previously
  studied.
• Cataloged and identified 715 new generaand 4,717
  new species.

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Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
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The Oceanography Explosion

• The Industrial Revolution spearheaded the growth
  and expansion of marine sciences. This included
• Better ships made of iron with steam engines.
• Improvements in the design and building of
  research equipment.
• The advent of the submarine.
• Global conflict helping toaccelerate research
  inscience and technology.

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Three Expeditions

• The German Meteor Expedition (1925)
• Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in two years.
• Data collected established patterns for ocean
  water circulation, nutrient dispersal, and
  plankton growth.
• Primary accomplishment wasmapping the Atlantic
  seafloorwith echo-sounding technology.

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Three Expeditions

• The United States Atlantis Expedition 1931
• The first ship specifically designed and built
  for ocean studies.
• Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor as well
  as confirmed the existence of the Mid-Atlantic
  Ridge and mapped it.

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Three Expeditions

• The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition 1951
• Mission to measure the depths of the Atlantic,
  Pacific, and Indian oceans.
• Used eco-sounding technology for mapping.

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Three Expeditions

• The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition 1951
• Challenger IIs most noted discovery was finding
  the deepest known part of the ocean. At about
  11,000 meters (36,000 feet) deep, this is still
  the deepest known place in the world.
• This spot, located in the Marianas Trench, was
  named Challenger Deep inhonor of the
  firstChallenger expedition.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• How the ocean was studied was changed forever by
  the submersibles and self-contained diving
• Instead of grabbing samples blindly, a scientist
  could pick specific ones.
• Scientists could take delicate samples without
  damaging them and living organisms without
  killing them.
• Scientists can directly observe the geology,
  life, and other phenomena without taking any
  samples.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• Three types of submersibles used for underwater
  research
• Bathysphere - operated only vertically.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• Three types of submersibles used for underwater
  research
• Bathyscaphe - operated much like a blimp air ship
  by releasing ballast and had a small electric
  motor to give it limited horizontal mobility.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• Three types of submersibles used for underwater
  research
• Deep-diving submersibles - state of the art
  today, far less fragile than bathyscaphes, easier
  to launch and use in rough seas.
• This makes them suitable for more varied types of
  research. Some even have robotic arms.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• In 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first
  practical dive equipment hard-hat diving that
  supplied air from the surface through a hose.
• Used mainly for underwater construction, salvage,
  and ship maintenance.Limited because it is
  heavyand requires a supportteam and vessel.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• In 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss, introduced the
  first workable self-contained underwater
  breathing apparatus, called scuba today.
• In 1943, Jacques Cousteauintroduced the first
  practical scuba.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• Scuba is simple, relatively inexpensive and quite
  portable, but places limits on depth and duration
  of the dive.
• Scuba also has the advantage of dexterity.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

• Hardsuits, such as the Newt Suit, merge the
  technologies of scuba and submersibles,
  protecting the wearer from pressure but allowing
  almost full mobility, but they are more costly
  and complex than scuba.

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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• Technology such as electronics and space travel
  have provided important contributions to
  oceanography.
• These include electronic navigation, remotely
  operated vehicles (ROV), autonomous underwater
  vehicles (AUV), drifters and ocean observation
  satellites.

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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) became common
  in the late 1970s. ROVs are
• A small, unmanned submarine with propellers,
  video camera, and an umbilical to the surface or
  to a submersible.
• An economical way to match the capabilities of a
  submersible and the dexterity of a scuba diver.

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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are
• Untethered robotic devices propelled through the
  water by self-contained power systems.
• Piloted by an onboard computer.
• Launched from the surface and are maneuverable in
  three dimensions.
• Propelled by self-contained power systems. Others
  use the difference in water layer temperatures to
  glide.

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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• AUVs sample the ocean along precise preprogrammed
  underwater paths.

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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• Drifters are instrument packages that measure
  temperature, salinity, pressure and currents.
• Drifters
• Collect information and transmit it, with their
  exact position, to a satellite system.
• Float at the surface while others descend as deep
  as 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) for programmed
  durations, then rise to the surface to transmit
  their data.

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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• Satellites orbit the Earth and assist
  oceanographers with global observations of the
  ocean.
• Satellites provide continuous measurements of
  variables such as surface height, shape,
  temperature and color, over the entire planet.
• They are an effective way for oceanographers to
  look at very large areas of the world in a very
  short period.
• Information gathered from satelliteshas largely
  replaced measurementstaken directly at sea.

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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation

• The first electronic navigation came into use in
  the late 1960s. LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation).
  Accuracy varied with distance from the
  transmitters.
• Today we use GPS - Global Positioning System.

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