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• Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should
  contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no
  unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a
  drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a
  machine no unnecessary parts.
• From William Strunk s (1918) The Elements of
  Style.

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The Dalhousie Writing Centre

• Computer science

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Outline

• Dalhousie help and resources you can use.
• Getting started.
• Proposal writing
• Good writing practices/science writing tips.
• Revision
• References

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The Dalhousie Writing Centre http//writingcentre
.dal.ca/

• Visit us online,
• or in person
• Room G40C Killam
• Library Learning
• Commons
• 6225 University
• Avenue

• My contact information
• Janice.Eddington_at_dal.ca

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Other recommended resources

• Academic Integrity at Dalhousie
• http//academicintegrity.dal.ca/
• Online Writing Lab (OWL at Purdue)
• A great online resource (grammar, structure,
  etc.)
• http//owl.english.purdue.edu/

• Library
• Subject librarian
• Gwendolyn McNairn
• Ref works
• Online Writing Style guides
• Online assignment calculator
• www.library.dal.ca/assignment/calculator

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Please also see

• the Writing Centre LibGuide http//dal.ca.libguide
  s.com/content.php?pid174958hsa
• Australias University of Adelaide Writing Centre
  for a webinar on intellectual property (and other
  materials)
• http//www.adelaide.edu.au/clpd/online/learningmod
  ules/avoidingPlagiarism/player.html

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The writing ...
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Writing as a process a recursive process

• Planning, thinking, researching (reading, note
  taking)
• Outlining (going back)
• Writing in stages (especially for longer papers)
• Getting feedback
• Rewriting/revision
• Researching, rewriting
• Rewriting
• Finishing final check submitting

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Before you startsome things to consider

• Developing good organizational and writing skills
  
• Know your assignment guidelines (read, re-read,
  ask)
• Create good notes (at all stages)
• Research/incorporate responsibly. Remember what
  is yours
• Give yourself time be prepared to revisit and
  revise the plan as you go.

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When you begin the process

• Know your audience,
• purpose,
• content,
• context
• (who, why, what, how/when)

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Recall that reading is part of the ongoing
process

• Read (and notice) good writing --for style, and
  for content
• clarity (how did they achieve it?)
• organization/structure/flow
• tone (discipline-specific rules)

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As you read, read actively

• Annotate the text with thoughts, questions,
  ideas
• Ask yourself
• What is the authors thesis?
• Have they supported their arguments? If so, how
  did they do so?
• What have they left out?
• Have they thought of?

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As you research

• Limit your topic continue to develop a strong
  thesis
• Use acceptable evidence
• Keep the reader in mind (tell them what you are
  doing share your logic)
• Make notes in your own voice

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• Well talk more specifically about your research
  proposals,
• But now that youve done some research
• How do you go about incorporating
• other writers work into your own?

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Recall that other scholars ideas should
provide support, evidence, context for your
argument
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• they should not be the backbone of your writing
  
• You are becoming a part of the culture of
  enquiry in which your ideas are
• informed by but separate from those of your
  sources (Gallant, 2011)
• Especially avoid the world according to ____
  and excessive quotation)

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Writing academically

• Know the rules on using intellectual property
• Carefully indicate the work of others and your
  own work in your notes
• Integrate source material into your work with
  clear citations.
• Use a standard documentation/source guide (e.g.
  APA, Vancouver, IEEE)
• Double (or triple) check everything before
  submission and dont forget to check the work of
  group members.

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Some techniques that have worked for others

• Find a way to keep track of your references
  without losing the flow of your writing.
• (But start the literature cited page immediately,
  and add to it as you go.)
• Student tips
• Cue cards can be shuffled
• Insert/comment feature
• Organize topics numbering?
• Create clear file names

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What exactly do we have to cite?

• The quick answer is
• Everything!
• Well, okay. There are two big exceptions
• Your own thoughts and ideas
• General knowledge (but be careful about what is
  general knowledge).

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Back to the how. Generally speaking, there are
three main techniques or methods of
incorporation.

• Although much depends on the nature of the
  material and your purpose, youll see and use the
  incorporation of
• Quotations
• Paraphrases
• Summaries

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Quotations

• Must be identical to the original word for
  word.
• Must be indicated as a quotation in the text
  (with quotation marks or blocking)
• Should have a lead-in
• Must be attributed
• Should be used sparingly, if at all, in academic
  (especially in scientific) writing.

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When do we use direct quotations?

• When we need a sample of a writing style or
  dialect.
• When the way the speaker/author has said
  something is as important as what they have said.
• To state the exact phrasing of a policy or law.
• For specific words or phrases pulled from the
  text.
• There are special considerations when using a
  chart, graph, etc. from another source. Follow
  your citation style guidelines.
• As always, remember to include proper citations
  in each of the above cases.

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Paraphrasing

• Interpreting or restating source material in your
  own words.
• Please note It is not just a rewording or
  rearrangement of words, and it is not just
  replacing words with synonyms (Beware of reaching
  for your thesaurus here!)
• Remember, even though you have used your own
  words, the thought still belongs to another
  scholar.
• Paraphrases must be attributed

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Summarizing

• Synthesizing and extracting the main idea(s) and
  expressing it in your own words.
• Significantly shorter than original and takes a
  broader overview of material than paraphrases or
  quotations.
• Must be attributed

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The research proposal

• Is an action plan that provides the rationale,
  justification, and description of your study.
• Clearly states problem and associated
  hypotheses
• Frames your research and links it to previous
  research
• Explains proposed method plans for data
  analysis (qualitative/quantitative, both?)

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Three key questions to keep in mind

• 1. What are we going to learn from as the result
  of the proposed project that we do not know now?
• 2. Why is it worth knowing?
• 3. How will we know that the conclusions are
  valid?
• From Adam Przeworski Department of Political
  Science University of Chicago and Frank Salomon
  Department of Anthropology University of
  Wisconsin . The Art of Writing Proposals
  http//www.ssrc.org/workspace/images/crm/new_publi
  cation_3/7B7a9cb4f4-815f-de11-bd80-001cc477ec707
  D.pdf

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Refining your research question

• Read over sources
• Ask questions such as
• What is known about the topic?
• What are the gaps on the topic?
• What has been proposed as future directions?
• How can existing studies be improved?
• Can similar ideas be explored from a different
  perspective, different focus group, etc?
• Come up with a specific question of interest
• Ask Do I want to analyze, explain, or take a
  position on a topic?
• Ask How or Why questions about a topic

goodaboutlife.blogspot.com
http//owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/
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Identifying Gaps

• Is the evidence in a study convincing?
• Is it clear how evidence supports the argument?
  If no, how improve?
• Are alternatives considered?
• Are limitations considered?
• Is the evidence weak or strong?

www.leimo.info
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Research Proposal - purpose

• Persuasion?
• Convince readers that it is interesting and
  worthwhile-
• How will your work make a difference in your
  field of study?
• To do this need to explain to readers
• Big picture general area of research
• Specific area of research and gaps
• Rationale for your project
• Research question
• Methodology
• Significance of your projected findings

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Research Proposal - structure

• General area of research
• Specific area of research
• Rationale
• Question
• Approach
• Significance

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Exercise (for another time)

• Discuss with a partner (in any order)
• General area of research
• Specific area of research
• Rationale
• Research questions
• Approach
• Significance
• Write down a point or two for each

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Literature reviews

• Lit. review generally organized around ideas or
  groups of ideas rather than by author,
  publication etc. , or subject
• Not only a presentation of what is out there, but
  a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing
  literature in the field.

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Why include it?

• Sets up theoretical, conceptual framework,
  appropriate methodology
• Establishes importance of topic, justifies choice
  of question.
• Practically, it provides background and context
  to your contribution

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How much detail?

• Handlons (1998) film shot analogy
• Long (background-acknowledged), medium(X2),,
  close-ups (foreground most direct relevance
  most careful scrutiny.)
• Circles represent topics,
• constructs, ideas, concepts.

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The revision process
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From the editors of Nature Structural and
Molecular Biology

• Making your story clear is not the same thing
  as dumbing it down. No reviewer has ever said
  that a paper was too easy to read ...
• ...We do, however, get complaints from reviewers
  about how complicated, convoluted or downright
  confusing a paper is.
• ...Clear, simple language allows the data and
  their interpretation to come through. Remember
  that clarity is especially important when you are
  trying to get complicated ideas across. pg 139
• Scientific Writing 101, Nature Structural and
  Molecular Biology 17 (2010) doi10.1038/nsmb0210-1
  39

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As you examine the draft

• Read aloud (you will notice more errors)
• Question yourself critically. Would it make sense
  if you hadnt written it?
• Anticipate readers questions and try to identify
  gaps.

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Some science (and other) writing/revising tips

• Provide reader with essential information (decide
  on relevant details)
• One idea per sentence general rule of thumb
• Try short sentences -especially in first draft,
  can combine them later (short/longgood flow).
• Each paragraph should be centered around a main
  point or idea use topic and concluding
  sentences, and remember to pay attention to links
  between ideas (more on transition later)

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Writing/revision tips continued

• Be clear and unambiguous use key words, define
  others
• Give the sense in the fewest words.
• Value each word and know the meaning context.
  Make every word count.
• Extra words phrases divert attention.
• Avoid quite, some etc. (vague qualifiers) be
  specific.

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Say what you mean (and carefully consider subject
and action)

• Smiths (2003) research investigated the effect
• Who did the work?
• Consider Smith (2003) investigated the effect

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• Be specific
• Many insect species have been described.
• ? Nearly one million insect species have been
  described.
• The copper chloride treatment was not affected.
• ? Cells exposed to copper chloride divided at
  normal rates.

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Build bridges for your reader (or, more on
achieving transition)

• Use transition, or in some cases headings and
  titles, to guide reader through material.
• Dont make the reader work, go back, or search
  for missing ideas/material. Share your logic.

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Transitions may be needed

• Between sections paragraphs summarizing material
  just covered and specify how relevant to next
  section.
• Between paragraphs a summarizing statement with
  clue to context (at end of one, beginning of
  another.)
• Within paragraphs usually just a word or two
  used as cues
• Adapted from Day (1998)
• (e.g. furthermore, however, therefore, indeed,
  then, by contrast, subsequently, although,
  consequently, equally important,) remain
  aware of usage and context.

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Closing reminders

• Look for help when (or before!) its needed
• Approach your TA, professor, advisor, subject
  librarian or study skills coach
• Come in to see us for an appointment!

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Resources/References

• Canadian Press. 2008. The Canadian Style Guide
• Chinneck, John, W. Department of Systems and
  Computer Engineering, Carleton University
• Dalhousie University Writing Centre-resources and
  direct communication, consultation, and slide
  preparation with Margie Clow-Bohan, Paul Hardman,
  Krista Patriquin
• Day, Robert A. 1998. How to write and publish a
  scientific paper.
• Gallant, K. (2011, January) Addressing
  unintentional plagiarism by introducing students
  to the culture of enquiry. Presentation
  handout Centre for Learning and Teaching,
  Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS.
• Greene, L. 2010. Writing in the Life Sciences A
  Critical Thinking Approach. Oxford University
  Press
• Hacker, Diana. 2009. A Canadian Writers
  Reference
• Handlon, Joseph, 1998, as described in Rudestam
  1998
• Hart, Chris. 2003. Doing a Literature Review
  Releasing the Social Science imagination. Sage
  Publications limited, London
• Howard, Rebecca Moore, Tanya K. Rodrigue, and
  Tricia C. Serviss. "Writing from Sources, Writing
  from Sentences." Writing and Pedagogy 2.2 (Fall
  2010) 177-192.
• Keene, M., K. Adams and M. Clow-Bohan. 2007.
  Instant Access
• Knisely, Karen. 2005. A Student Handbook for
  Writing in Biology.
• Levine, S. 2008. Writing proposals. MSU
• Paul, Alana. 2006. Purpose of Writing Lab Reports
  in Psychology A Survey of Anxiety in Vampires
  and University Students.
• MacDonald, Brock. 2011.Oral presentation at
  CASDW (Canadian Association for the Study of
  Discourse and Writing) conference in Fredericton,
  May 27, 2011.
• Pechenik., Jan A. 2004. A Short Guide to Writing
  about Biology.
• Rudestam, K. R. Newton. 1998, 2007. Surviving
  your Dissertation. Library of Congress
• For further details or questions on references
  please contact Janice.Eddington_at_dal.ca, Dalhousie
  Writing Centre