Motor/Physical Development in Infancy/Toddlerhood

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• Motor/Physical Development in Infancy/Toddlerhood
• Positive experiences
• Negative experiences
• Words babies whose parents talked to them more
  had larger vocabularies and learned to read
  sooner and better.

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• Movement matters too much time in playpens
  show..
• Stress hurts poverty, abuse, violence harms
  the that is responsible for emotion and
  memory.(confuses chemicals that regulate
  behavior, fear, and agression).
• Dendrites a well connected brain is a forest of
  dendrites. In severely neglected children, there
  are few connections, affecting..

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• A childs brain uses twice as much glucose the
  brains fuel.
• Myelin a fatty coating that protects the axons
  in the brain, resulting in more efficient and
  faster communication among neurons.
• Babies have few myelinated axons one reason why
  they cannot see well and do much with their hands
  except grasp.
• Undernourished children have less myelination
  and prone to learning problems like a slow reader.

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• Pruning of unused or unneeded neurons help to
  promote thinking clearly, making fast
  associations, and reacting to threats and solving
  problems. Only connections that are reinforced
  over and over again will remain.
• Cerebral cortex ¼ thick has glial cells which
  provide nutrition and metabolic processes and
  also removes waste.

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• KWASHIORKOR A form of malnutrition caused by
  inadequate protein intake.
• Found
• in areas of famine
• where there is limited food supply
• low levels of education
• areas that lack knowledge or proper diet
• Symptoms
• large belly irritability lethargy
• loss of muscle mass fatigue
• decreased immunity dermatitis
• thinning hair enlarged liver
• vitiligo

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• Treatment
• restore blood volume
• stabilize blood pressure
• vitamins minerals
• enzyme (lactase) to help milk intake
• (Kwashiorkor is often a sign of child abuse and
  severe neglect)

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• CRAWLING
• 7-9 mths. babies show understanding of near and
  far
• This task allows for the following
• It is easier to get around independently.
• setting event it sets the stage for other
  changes in the infant and his/her environment.
• A new view of the world where objects are, how
  big they are, can they be moved and how they look.

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1. Helps them judge distances and perceive depth
   (people and objects look different close up than
   far away).
2. Gets them into new situations warnings such as
   come back and dont touch.
3. Social referencing look for clues as to whether
   a situation is secure or frightening.
4. Fear of heights a form of protection.
5. No longer prisoners of place they can get
   around, developing self-esteem and
   self-confidence.

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• JAUNDICE - a condition in newborns caused by an
  accumulation of bilirubin in the body.
• Bilirubin caused from a breakdown of red blood
  cells and then excreted in the liver.
• (Infants are born with an abundance of red blood
  cells).
• The babys liver is still immature, causing the
  yellow pigment in bilirubin to accumulate and
  deposit in the babys skin and eyes.

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• Excess bilirubin caused by
• Baby born prematurely
• Stressed after a difficult birth
• Mother diabetic
• Breast-fed babies get more jaundice than
  bottle-fed babies because breastfeeding draws
  out the bilirubin (excreted in the stool)
• Usually lasts about 2 weeks and then goes away.
• A slight elevation in bilirubin helps prevent
  bacterial infection in newborns. Babies with
  bilirubin and who are breastfed are more
  disease-resistant.

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• Bilirubin functions as an antioxidant in the
  brain.
• Treatment
• Frequent breast-feeding
• Light therapy
• Sunbathe the baby (15 mins. 3 times a day).

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• COLIC
• When the baby cries 3 or more hours a day and it
  is NOT due to hunger, a wet diaper, or other
  visible causes.
• Characteristics
• Healthy sucking reflex
• Likes to be cuddled and handled
• May spit up from time to time
• May have normal stool
• Causes
• milk allergy
• gas
• GERD Gastroesophageal reflux disease

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• Treatment
• Walk with baby or use a rocking chair
• Burp baby more during feedings
• Put baby on belly and rub the back
• Put baby in a swing
• Take baby for a ride
• Colic usually goes away by 3 months.

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• Positional Plagiocephaly
• Also known as flattened head syndrome.
• Causes
• Sleep in same position for too long
• Torticollis neck muscles too tight/inadequate
  tone shorter on one side, causing the head to
  tilt in one way and the chin in the opposite
  direction.
• Premature babies more prone because their
  skulls are softer and spend lots of time in bed
  without being moved due to their fragility.
• Moms belly pressure of the mothers pelvis on
  babys skull or because of a twin.

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• Symptoms
• Back of head flat
• Ear on flattened side pushed forward
• Childs forehead may be assymetrical
• Diagnosis
• Examine babys head
• Xrays or CT Scan to see whether the bones fused
  too soon.
• Treatment
• Reposition the child during sleep
• Move babys crib (something may be holding their
  attention)
• Custom-molded helmet or head band in severe cases.

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• Reflexes
• Primitive sucking, rooting for the nipple.
• Postural reflexes reaction to changes in
  position or balance.(extended arms in parachute
  style to break a fall tilted downward or
  forward).
• Locomotor walking swimming.
• Touch Pain
• Touch is the 1st sense to develop and the most
  mature sensory system. (stroke a newborns
  cheek).
• Smell Taste
• Begins to develop in the womb. Taste preferences
  are innate

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• Hearing
• Functional at birth
• 1 month can distinguish sounds as close as ba
  and pa.
• (Because hearing is the key to language
  development, infants should be screened within
  the first 3 months of life for hearing
  impairment).
• SightVision is least developed at birth.
• 2 mths. can tell red from green
• 3 mths. can identify blue
• 4 mths. can tell difference between red, blue,
  green, and yellow.

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• 6 mths. vision reaches 20/20 (a person can read
  letters on a specified line on a standard eye
  chart from 20 ft. away).
• 4-5 mths. binocular vision begins to develop.
• Locomotion
• 6 mths. can sit without support.
• 9 mths. can assume a sitting position without
  help.
• 3 ½ yrs. most kids can balance briefly on one
  foot and begin to hop.

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• Cultural Influences
• African babies more advanced than U.S. babies
  in walking, running, and sitting.
• Uganda babies walk at 10 mths.
• U.S.A. babies walk at 12 mths.
• France babies walk at 15 mths.
• Many African and West Indian cultures have
  special handling routines bouncing and
  stepping to strengthen babies muscles.

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• Ache in eastern Paraguay children do not walk
  until 18-20 mths.
• 8-10 yrs. climb, indulge in play that enhance
  their motor skills.
• SIDS death of an infant under 1 yr in which the
  death remains unexplained after a thorough
  investigation that includes an autopsy.
• Risk Factors
• Black (they have fewer brain receptors)
• American Indian
• Male
• Low birth-weight
• Premature

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• SIDS mothers are
• Young
• Had little or no prenatal care
• Smoked during pregnancy
• Evidence
• Brain abnormalities
• Correlation between SIDS and unusual heartbeat
  which may be genetic.

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• Defects in chemical receptors in the brain stem
  that receive and send messages that regulate
  heart beat, body temperature, etc. may prevent
  SIDS babies from waking when they breathe too
  much stale air containing carbon dioxide trapped
  under their blanket.
• (The brainstem of male babies have more serotonin
  using neurons but fewer serotonin receptors.
  Serotonin helps relay messages between neurons).
• There is a strong correlation between sleeping on
  the stomach and SIDS.

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• Cognitive Development
• Piagets 5 substages
• 1-4 mths. primary circular reactions repeating
  a pleasant bodily sensation first achieved by
  chance Ex.(sucking thumb, bottle).
• 4-8 mths. secondary circular reactions new
  interest in manipulating objects. Ex. (repeatedly
  shaking a rattle to hear its noise pushing
  pieces of dry cereal off the high chair and watch
  each piece as it falls bouncing a ball).

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• 3. 8-12 mths. coordination of secondary
  schemes use past experiences to solve new
  problems.
• Ex.(crawl to get something, grab, pushing a
  button to hear a special sound/song. (this marks
  the beginning of intentional behavior).
• 4. 12-18 mths. Tertiary Circular reactions
  experiment with new behavior (trial/error) to see
  what will happen. Ex. Baby in crib and girl show
  him book, he tries to get it but the bars around
  the crib does not let him.

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• Varying an action to get similar results. Ex.
• Squeeze a rubber duck that squeaks when it was
• stepped on).
• 5. 18-24 mths. - Mental Combinations transition
  to pre-operational stage. They use symbols,
  gestures, words. Ex. Little girl given a tea set
  and pretends to serve tea to everyone. Ex.
  Trying to open a jar and kids open their mouth
  wider to represent what they are trying to do.

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• Peekaboo- played across cultures and marked by
  exaggerated gestures and voice tones.
• helps baby master anxiety when mother disappears.
• Cognitive development it is a way for babies to
  develop ideas about object permanence.
• Social routine helps babies learn rules that
  govern conversation, such as taking turns.
• Provides practice in paying attention a
  prerequisite for learning.

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• Language Development-
• Literacy the ability to read and write.
• Language communication system based on words
  and grammar.
• Prelinguistic speech utterance of sounds that
  are not words. Ex. Crying, cooing, bablbing.
• 9-10 mths. infants deliberately imitate sounds
  without understanding them.
• 9-12 mths. learn social gestures. Ex. Waving
  bye-bye, nodding to mean yes.

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1. 13 mths. elaborate representational gestures.
   Ex. Hold an empty cup to mouth to mean they want
   a drink hold up arms to mean they want to be
   picked up.
2. 1st year symbolic gestures blowing to mean
   hot sniffing to mean flower.
3. 18-24 mths. a naming explosion occurs. They
   may go from 50 to 400 words.
4. First Sentences when a toddler puts 2 words
   together. Ex. Dolly fall.
5. Early speech underextension restricting the
   meaning to only one object. Ex. Lisas uncle
   gives her a car and only that one is a car.
6. Overextension Eddie jumps in excitement at the
   sight of the gray-haired man because every
   gray-haired man is his grandpa.

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• Language Acquisition
• Behaviorists (NURTURE)
• Operant Conditioning children are rewarded for
  proper language and proper language is
  reinforced. Little attention is paid to improper
  language.
• Classical Conditioning sit develops meaning
  as it represents the physical act associated with
  it. When words are paired with the physical act,
  after repeated attempts, it will produce the act
  of sitting.

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• Noam Chomsky (NATURE)
• Language is innate
• The inner drive is so powerful that even in a
  poor environment, children will learn to speak
  (unless severe mental or physical limitations).
• Since language is acquired quickly, learning
  alone does not account for it.
• LAD an inborn reservoir filled with information
  about the rules of language.

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• DYSLEXIA
• A specific learning disability that is
  neurobiological in origin (migration of neurons
  to inappropriate places in the cerebral cortex)
  and characterized by difficulties with accurate
  and/or fluent word recognition and by poor
  spelling and decoding abilities.
• Cognitive deficitphonological
• Performance deficitdecoding, fluency, spelling
• Manifest Disability reading
• Derivative impactcomprehension
• Dyslexia is an impairment in the brains ability
  to translate images received from the eyes and
  ears into understandable language.

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• Types of Dyslexia
• Trauma Dyslexia- due to some form of brain trauma
  or injury to the area of the brain that controls
  reading and writing (very rare).
• Primary Dyslexia- dysfunction of the left side of
  the brain. Problems with reading, spelling, and
  writing as adults. Highly genetic and mostly in
  boys than girls.
• Secondary or developmental dyslexia due to
  hormonal development during early stages of
  pregnancy. Diminishes as the child matures.
• Visual Dyslexia number and letter reversals and
  inability to write symbols in the correct
  sequence.
• Auditory Dyslexia difficulty with sounds of
  letters or groups of letters. May sound jumbled
  or not heard correctly.
• Dysgraphia difficulty holding and controlling a
  pencil to make the correct markings on the paper.

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• Related Disorders
• Dyspraxia difficulty in carrying out routine
  tasks involving balance and fine motor-control.
• Verbal Dyspraxia difficulty in the use of
  speech sounds.
• Dyscalculia problems with fundamental and basic
  numerical skills. One may understand complex
  principles but not the simpler ones.
• Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome difficulty
  reading black text on white paper, especially
  when the paper is shiny.

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• Symptoms of Dyslexia
• Letter and number reversals
• Difficulty copying from the board or a book
• Disorganization of written work
• May not be able to remember content even if it is
  from their favorite story or book.
• Uncoordinated
• Difficulty with organized sports or games
• Difficulty with left and right
• Difficulty moving to the rhythm of music

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• Famous Dyslexics
• Ann Bancroft
• Henry Ford
• Whoopi Goldberg
• Anthony Hopkins
• John F. Kennedy
• Henry Winkler
• Jay Leno
• Tom Cruise
• Cher
• Robin Williams
• Leonardo Da Vinci
• George Washington

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• Downs Syndrome/(TRISOMY 21)
• ( A developmental disorder characterized by an
  extra or irregular chromosome in some or all body
  cells).

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• Trisomy 21 The Origin of Down Syndrome

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• People with Down Syndrome have an extra or
  irregular chromosome in some or all of their
  bodys cells. This causes physical and mental
  impairment. Many are mild to moderate
  below-normal intelligence.
• Cause Extra or irregular chromosomes is due to
  abnormal cell division in the egg before or after
  it is fertilized by the sperm. Instead of cells
  dividing into daughter cells, they remain as
  the parent cell.
• Signs
• Flat face
• Small ears and mouth
• Broad hands and feet
• Lack of muscle tone
• Head flat at back
• Eyes slope at the corners
• Folds of skin near the inner corners of the eye

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• IQ RangeClassification
• 140 and over Genius or near genius
• 120-140 Very superior intelligence
• 110-120 Superior intelligence
• 90-110 Normal or average intelligence
• 80-90 Dullness
• 70-80 Borderline deficiency
• Below 70 Definite feeble-mindedness

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• Heart defects, intestinal abnormalities, and
  irregular ear and respiratory tract structures
  can cause added complications. Often have an IQ
  from 30-80.
• Diagnosis
• Fetal ultrasound
• Maternal triple-screen test
• Karyotyping
• 1) Fetal ultrasound and maternal triple-screen
  tests are screening tests to determine if there
  is a possibility for Down Syndrome.

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• Karyotyping can be done during pregnancy using
  Chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis.
• (These procedures are slightly risky and is
  recommended if the mother is over age 35, had
  another child with Down Syndrome, had an abnormal
  ultrasound or triple screen test, or has a family
  history of the condition).
• Accuracy is about 98-99
• Karyotyping
• A microscope is used to examine the size, shape,
  and number of chromosomes in a sample of body
  cells.
• Chromosomes in a cell are stained with a dye to
  make the bands of each chromosome visible.
  Banding helps to show differences in structure
  among the chromosomes and helps arrange them in
  pairs. Chromosomes are then photographed through
  the microscope.

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• Amniocentesis a long, thin needle is used to
  remove a sample of amniotic fluid and the
  chromosomes are checked for Down Syndrome.
• Chorionic Villus Sampling a tiny tube is used
  to remove a small sample of the placenta.

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• (Since mature red blood cells do not contain any
  chromosomes, karyotyping is usually done on white
  blood cells).
• Karyotyping is done to
• Determine whether the chromosomes of an adult
  have an abnormality that can be passed on to the
  child.
• Determine if chromosome defect is preventing a
  woman from becoming pregnant or to miscarry.
• Determine if chromosome defect is present in a
  fetus or infant or a stillborn.
• Determine the cause of a childs birth defects or
  disability.
• Determine the appropriate treatment for some
  types of cancer.
• Identifying the sex of a person by determining
  the presence of the Y chromosome (usually done
  when a newborns sex is not clear).

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• Maternal Serum Triple Test
• A set of 3 blood tests performed during pregnancy
  to assess the risk of birth defects in the unborn
  baby. Most accurate when performed between 16
  and 18 weeks of pregnancy. Each test measures
• Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)- a substance that the
  liver produces naturally. The level of AFP
  increases during pregnancy.
• An abnormally high APF risk for neural tube
  defect
• An abnormally low AFP increased risk for
  Down
• syndrome.
• This procedure has a 60 accuracy.
• 2. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) a hormone
  produced by the placenta. The level of hCG
  increases steadily during the first 14-16 weeks
  of pregnancy, peaks around the 14th week, and
  then gradually decreases.

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• Estriol a form of estrogen that increases
  during pregnancy. Produced by the placenta, can
  be detected as early as the 9th week of pregnancy
  and continues to increase until delivery.
• (The maternal serum triple test is a screening
  test, not a diagnostic test. It indicates a
  suspicion of a problem and can help the woman to
  decide if to have another test, such as
  amniocentesis, to verify whether a birth defect
  is present).

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• Treatment
• Medical checkups
• Speech and language therapy
• Physical and occupational therapy
• Nutritional counseling
• Vocational training
• (Social opportunities, emotional support, and
  medical care allow many to live into their 50s
  and 60s or even older).
• Most people with Down Syndrome have a lifespan of
  50-55 years.
• Males are generally sterile
• Women can get pregnant but will usually give
  birth to a child with Down Syndrome

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• AUTISM a pervasive developmental disorder,
  marked by profound deficits in social
  interaction, language, cognitive abilities, and
  restricted or repetitive activities and
  interests.
• People with autism usually have abnormal response
  to sensory stimuli touch, sound, light.
• Onset begins at birth but diagnosis is made
  usually between 4-6 years of age.
• Characteristics-
• Inability to develop normal socialization
• Children live in their own world
• May appear to look through people
• Difficulty understanding and expressing emotions
• Little desire to be held or cuddled
• Disturbance in speech, language, and sound
• Echolalia a parrot-like repeating of what is
  said to them.
• Abnormal relationships to objects preference
  for sameness.

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• Problems with filtering-out process- tone
  signals in department stores can be distressing.
• May appear deaf at other times.
• May be fascinated with lights or colors.
• Preoccupied with scratching or rubbing certain
  surfaces.
• Some enjoy being thrown into the air or spinning
  themselves around, or may wedge themselves into
  small spaces, or seek hard hugs or squeezes to
  obtain the sensory-feedback that they crave.
• May be able to read complex words but not simple
  ones.
• (Some skills may appear at the expected time of
  development and then disappear).

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• Causes
• Psychoanalytic theories refrigerator mothers
  (cold and detached). Children erect a wall to
  shut out their fears and the worlds aggression,
  but at the price of internal emptiness.
• Biochemical imbalance impairment of the
  reticular formation of the brainstem. Deficient
  in sensory input and motor output.
• Autistics have higher blood serotonin and
  higher platelet counts.
• Viruses rubella infection during pregnancy and
  birth defects from hazardous chemicals.
• Variation of the gene HOXA1 on chromosome
  7(associated with language disorders) and
  chromosome 15 doubles the risk for Autism.
• At least 4 and many as 20 genes may be involved
  in autism.

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• Treatment
• Homeopathic
• Herbal
• Vitamins
• Hormone Secretin
• Gluten and Casein-free diets
• Vitamin B6 with Magnesium
• Dimethylglycine antioxidant that increases
  energy, enhances the immune system, increases eye
  contact and speech and decreases frustration
  levels.
• More recent light and sound therapy/craniosacral
  therapy