Exam 2 material begins here: Facebook and personality (see p. 70)

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Exam 2 material begins hereFacebook and
personality (see p. 70)

• Whats on your Facebook page?
• Is it possible to gain an understanding of your
  personality from your Facebook page?
• Theory? (proposed relationship for narcissism)
• Method of investigation?
• Data and theory-driven proof?
• Note This is not a formalized assessment tool,
  but can be used to test theoretical assumptions

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Survey study Facebook narcissism (Carpenter,
2012)

• Standardized self-report measures of narcissism
  and self esteem
• Survey data on of FB updates, gt 1 hr/day?, tag
  on photos? Large of virtual vs. real friends?,
  enhance your photos? Self-promoting posts?
• Found these FB patterns (and others) to be
  associated with low self-esteem and higher
  narcissism.
• Assuming these associations are real, what are
  the implications of certain types of FB use?
• What further research is needed to make those
  conclusions?

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Contemporary Psychodynamic Models

• Four basic orientation in psychodynamic theory,
  with the first, drive theory (sex and
  aggression), reflected in Freuds framework.
• Contemporary models still emphasize the
  unconscious, but focus on
• 1) Object relations
• 2) Self-psychology
• 3) Ego Psychology

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1. Object Relations

• Object relations well defined ideas or mental
  representations (objects) that are largely based
  on early relationships with parents are a central
  part of the self.
• Focus of the object relations is impacted by
  early attachment experiences, especially the
  mother-infant unit
• e.g., past experiences with mother would
  influence how one views other women in your life.
  Perceived abandonment (mother left for
  work-related trips) would result in fears of
  abandonment with adult relationships
• emphasis is on perception rather than reality
  (perceived abandonment)
• If behavior such as aggression manifests, it is
  assumed to be due to problematic object
  relations, not a normal, internal drive (as per
  Freud)

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Balancing parent-child identities

• Symbiosis an undifferentiated mother-infant
  unit
• Individuation the infants increasing
  separation and self-sufficiency
• Role of parental separation in disrupting normal
  symbiosis and individuation (i.e., accelerating
  individuation or prolonging symbiosis)
• Any dysfunction in the parent-child relationship
  can undermine later development
• Personality development must be considered within
  the context of the mother-infant unit (Winnicott)

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Putting object relations to the test, part 1

• Does childhood trauma at the hands of ones
  parents predict later life problems?
• Focus on parental physical abuse and its impact
  on physical and mental health (Springer et al.,
  2007)
• gt 2,000 middle-age adults who completed
  self-reported measures of anxiety, depression,
  physical symptoms, and self-reports of past abuse
• 11-12 of the sample reported childhood physical
  abuse (national figures indicate approx. 2 of
  children who are lt 1 y.o., are abused).
• Incidence of childhood abuse did prospectively
  predict depression, anxiety, physical symptoms
  and medical diagnoses, even after controlling for
  demographics, family background, and other
  childhood adversities.
• What are some of the confounds of this research?
• Alternative hypotheses? What if trauma at any age
  predicts the same problems?

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The importance of attachment separation in
object relations

• Attachment and how the infant experiences
  separation, are central features of normal human
  development
• Also occurs in nonhuman species is critical to
  development
• See Harlows studies on orphaned monkeys
  (preference for terry cloth mothers over wire,
  feeding mothers)
• Early separation undermines normal social
  development and leads to greater timidity and
  isolation

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Early attachment separation

• Based on theories and research forwarded by John
  Bowlby (1969) on mammals showing how off-spring
  separate from parent(s)
• Proximity-enhancing behavior is present in all
  mammals (e.g., clinging, separation anxiety,
  etc.)
• Importance of initial strong attachment in
  mammals maximize survival
• During separation 1. separation protest 2.
  silence 3. re-attachment

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Putting object relations to the test, part 2

• Does maternal separation predict later life
  problems?
• Studied maternal separation in lab-based, animal
  models (Daniels et al., 2004), and this can
  address two limitations of the earlier research,
  which did not look at maternal separation (as per
  object relations theory) and causality (why?)
• Manipulated postnatal contact between rat pups
  and their mothers (3 hrs/day from days 2-14 post
  birth) and then examined maze learning
• Compared to control rat pups, the separated rats
  were less likely to enter the maze, less
  locomotion, spent more time in closed arms of the
  maze higher defecation frequency. Also, higher
  ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
• Suggests higher anxiety from separation?
• How does rat pup behavior map on to disturbances
  in human behavior?
• What are some of the confounds of this research?

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2. Self Psychology

• Theory Heinz Kohut believed that all children
  need for someone to affirm and admire their
  achievements
• Typically a parent (mother), but could be someone
  else
• Mirroring refers to the act of responding to
  childs expressions accurately. It includes
  understanding childs emotions and affirms and
  reflects those emotions back to the child.
• E.g., when child cries, mimicking the sad face,
  or happy face, etc.
• Kohut believed that this was critical to
  personality/identity development (a
  self-structure is developed with proper
  affirmation)
• Treatment of those with narcissistic PD involves
  empathy and affirmation (adult version of
  mirroring)
• Research suggesting brain damage from the
  experience of humiliation (the presumed
  underlying experience of NPD)

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Kohuts concepts

• Transmutting internalization self-object
  relations are internalized leading to normal
  development (the self-concept includes other
  objects but remains distinct from them)
• Includes being receptive to introjects
  (internalized objects), experiencing shortcomings
  when internalizations dont fully meet the
  childs needs (thus the self must grow to meet
  those needs), and the experience of minor loses
  (fosters more development).
• Note The importance of shortcomings/loses in
  normal development
• Psychic structures internal object relations
• Epigenetic principle biological origins of
  behavior are influenced by environmental
  availability (nature/nurture)
• Summary Child takes in psychic structures from
  primary caregivers to ultimately form his/her own
  identity

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Eriksons Identity Development (lifespan model)
p. 81
1. Trust vs. mistrust - infant learns to trust parents for survival needs 4. Industry vs. Inferiority - trial and error with mastery, learn which tasks you can do. 7. Generativity vs. stagnation - Have you achieved anything productive?
2 Autonomy vs shame - learn to act independent of parents 5. Identity vs. Role confusion - self identity begins to form (why now?) 8. Integrity vs. despair - Happiness with ones life, though resigned to the fact its ending
3. Initiative vs. guilt - learn to initiate actions, thoughts, and emotional experiences 6.Intimacy vs isolation adult relationships decision is often made more than once Numerous ego crises occur throughout (e.g., adolescence, midlife, late life)
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Summary of recent research on stages

• Little support for the idea of a crisis marked
  by stress and turmoil in either adolescents or
  adulthood (only about 20 of individuals
  experience it) Erikson emphasized identity
  formation
• Difficult to experimentally differentiate early
  internal experiences (stages)
• Eriksons stages represent conflicts of
  theoretical interest, not necessary/invariant
  developmental milestones
• Recent research has emphasized the last stage due
  to the increase in the population of that age

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Regrets - predict well being only in the elderly

• Omission regret not doing something
• Commission regret doing something
• Which are more salient?
• Mr. Paul sells stocks in Co. B to buy stocks in
  Co. A - 1200.
• Mr. George owns stocks in Co. A and is thinking
  of changing to Co. B, but doesnt - 1200. Who
  feels more regret? (Tversky)
• Sample of 155 older adults (Lecci et al. 1994)
  found
• Regrets of commission appear costlier in the
  present, but regrets of omission affect us more
  in the long term (note there are more of the
  latter).
• Number of regrets are not predicted by age, but
  more regrets for older adults resulted in higher
  depression (not so for the young)
• Regret saliency whether you had control over
  the regret is more relevant to well-being (i.e.,
  key is perception of the regret)

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Narcissism

• Its everywhere. Public figures say its what
  makes them
• stray from their wives. Parents teach it by
  dressing children
• in T-shirts that say "Princess." Teenagers
  young adults
• hone it on Facebook, and celebrity newsmakers
  have
• elevated it to an art form. And its whats
  making people
• depressed, lonely, and buried under piles of
  debt.
• Narcissism extreme self love/self absorption
• Some self-love is healthy and necessary to
  promote self-esteem
• Too much self-love indicates a problem
  (correcting low self-esteem?)
• Require external validation (vs. self validation)
  to elevate self-conf.
• Research shows that narcissists are biased to
  assume that others view them more positively,
  though they recognize that the favorable views
  decrease with time

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Kohut and Narcissism

• Kohut suggested that we are fueled to move from a
  fragile/fragmented self to maturation by
  narcissism (reflects the healthy aspects of
  narcissism)
• When sexual and aggressive drives are focused on
  the self vs. others.
• Shame and rage (when narcissism is not satisfied)
  are core emotions in narcissism
• e.g., as adults, when others fail to meet your
  demands/needs do you take it as a personal insult?

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3. Ego Psychology

• Heinz Hartmann emphasized the ego, but wanted
  to apply it to normal/healthy functioning as well
• Ego functions emphasizes finding adaptive
  solutions (coping mechanisms) and tolerating
  frustration, disappointment and other stress (as
  coping will not always work)
• Harry Sullivan believed personality changed
  over the lifetime and developed secondary to
  interactions with others
• e.g., An old self emerges when interacting with
  old friends
• Personifications of the self and others (similar
  to objects)
• 3 Types of Personifications 1) the bad-me, 2)
  the good me, 3) the not me
• Focus on defenses (does IQ reflect developmental
  stages?)
• With higher IQ, use of denial is associated with
  less ego development
• With lower IQ, use of denial and projection
  associated with more ego development (Cramer,
  1999)

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Malans Triangle of Conflict

• Depicts the interplay between underlying emotions
  (e.g., anxiety) and the defenses that attempt to
  control them
• All defenses noted in chapter two can be used
  (and are assumed to be outside of awareness),
  thereby leading to an almost infinite number of
  combinations with the emotional responses.

Defenses keep anxiety out of conscious
awareness.
Debate about the nature of this anxiety. Some
research has focused on existential anxiety over
the end of our life.
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A new twist on the unconscious TMT

• Terror Management Theory (TMT) suggests that we
  are strongly (though often unconsciously)
  influenced by thoughts of our own mortality
  (Greenberg et al., 2008)
• Mortality can be made more salient either
  consciously or unconsciously (see also Becker,
  1973)
• Mortality salience inductions (think about your
  own death) vs. subtle thoughts (standing near a
  funeral home) vs. control (pain)
• With threat to mortality, we act aggressively
  towards others (especially outside groups) to
  establish social order
• MS impacts size of financial judgments especially
  against foreign entities (e.g., Toyota vs.
  Chevy), and even influences judges bond amounts
  for an unrelated case (see Arndt et al., 2005 for
  a review).
• Self esteem is a buffer (defense) against threats
  to our mortality

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Assessment tools for Contemporary Psychodynamics

• Clinical interview
• Most data is still collected from patients, so
  the clinical interview is used frequently
• Can vary in how structured they are (see
  trade-offs for standardization, reliability, and
  validity)
• Projective tests (Rorschach, TAT, sentence
  completion)
• Debate as to tests vs. techniques due to low
  standardization in administration, scoring and
  interpretation which decreases reliability and
  validity
• In 1987, Exner devised a new scoring system to
  address these problems and some studies have
  shown significantly improved prediction of
  outcomes (see meta-analysis, Hiller et al., 1999)

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Rorschach revisions A closer look

• Exners scoring for the Rorschach has better
  psychometrics (same 10 cards, same
  administration, min 14 responses)
• Location
• Determinant (Form? Color? CF/FC?, Movement?)
• Popular responding
• Content (closer to original Rorschach scoring)
• Downside is time needed to administer and score

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Evaluating the Rorschach and other projective
tests

• There are some contexts in which TAT and
  Rorschach are valid (this includes Exners
  scoring system), but they are limited (see
  Lilienfeld et al., 2000)
• Not in forensic contexts
• Some success with diagnoses in psychiatric
  settings
• Projectives should be used in conjunction with
  other instruments
• Limited evidence for the effectiveness of other
  projective tests like the sentence completion
• Many clinicians still use these tests, and they
  have an impact on important decisions

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Ch. 4 Neurobiological models

• Neurobiological models for understanding
  personality
• Can the brains development, occurring in
  childhood and adolescence, be a better
  explanation for characterological changes?
• Capitalizes on the advancements in the field of
  neuroscience
• Focus on human social genomics (also called
  epigenetic responses) referring to some genes
  that are especially responsive to social and
  environmental regulation
• e.g., individual differences in response to
  environmental factors can also occur at the
  genetic level (differences in sensitivity to
  environmental cues)

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Understanding basic brain functions
0

• Neurons billions used to convey info.
  throughout the body
• Neurogenesis the creation of neurons
• Early fetal development sees approx. 3 million
  neurons developed per minute
• Neurogenesis continues into adulthood but slows
  with age (brain is thought to be fully developed
  in early 20s)
• The Neuron (see depiction)
• Dendrites take in neurochemical info
• Axon sends messages to next neuron (myelin
  sheath faster)
• Cell body where action potential begins

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Depiction of a neuron
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Neuronal communication
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A depiction of learning at the level of one
neurons.
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Neurotransmitters (p. 106)

• gt 100 different neurotransmitters. Examples with
  trait associations
• Dopamine controls arousal levels motor
  functioning
• Predicts risk-taking behavior (Heitland, et al.,
  2012)
• Serotonin controls mood, sleep, appetite
• Higher levels (or gt sensitivity) associated with
  optimism
• Acetylcholine controls attention, learning
  memory
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid inhibits over-excitation
• Higher levels are associated with relaxation lt
  stress
• Noradrenaline higher mood/arousal (stress
  response)
• Glutamate helps form connections between neurons
• Enkephalins Endorphins modulate pain, reduce
  stress
• Promotes happiness and well-being

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Putting neurobiological theory to the test, part 1

• Is serotonin related to depression and longer
  standing experiences (neuroticism)? More than
  mere depletion hypo.
• Using genetically-engineered mice who have either
  a susceptibility or resilience for depression.
• By activating or deactivating serotonin levels
  genetically they could alter depression (presumed
  connection to neuroticism too)
• See Dominquez-Lopez et al., 2012
• Also see research that alters serotonin by
  depleting tryptophan (a precursor to serotonin)
  by changing ones diet
• Strengths?
• Focus on neurobiological models that are similar
  to those in humans
• Experiment that randomly assigns to manipulations
  of genetics
• Removes the effects of expectancy/motivation bias
  seen in virtually all human studies (unless
  countered by effective control groups easier for
  drug studies, hard for therapy studies)
• Weaknesses? (studying 1 neuron in isolation?
  Mice?)

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Major divisions of the brain

• The lobes 1. Frontal (higher cognitive motor
  functioning), 2.Occipital (visual processing), 3.
  Temporal (auditory processing), 4. Parietal
  (sensations of the skin and muscles)
• Each of the 4 lobes occur in each hemisphere
• Right hemisphere visual-spatial processing
• Left hemisphere language
• production (Brochas area),
• comprehension (Wernickes area),
• motor functions (10 of people are
• left-handed lateralization)
• Neuroplasticity seen with normal
• development and also in response to
• brain trauma

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Altering the brain alters personality

• Research on personality change in AD patients
• Decreased openness to new experience (creativity)
  and conscientiousness (e.g., Pocnet et al., 2013)
• Case study Phineas Gage
• Damage to frontal cortex (steel rod)
• Increased impatience (what might have been called
  decreased ability to delay gratification
• Disinhibition (also related to failed control)

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The neuroscience of the unconscious

• Recall studies showing how information that is
  not consciously perceived can influence us
  (chapter 2)
• e.g., pictures that are masked help prime
  responses in the word pairs as related or
  unrelated
• fMRI studies have examined the part of the brain
  that responds to unconscious material (left
  fusiform gyrus left precentral gyrus Dehaene
  et al., 2001)
• Further validation of the influence of material
  to which we are less or unaware.

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The neuroscience of attachment

• Rapid brain growth (including neuronal and
  synaptic growth) until age 2
• After which, neurons that are not used die
  (neural pruning)
• Certain environmental contexts are needed to
  promote cell growth, such as opportunities for
  attachment
• See research on sensitive periods (learning is
  most likely to occur) vs. critical periods
  (learning must occur)
• e.g., language acquisition follows sensitive not
  critical period learning, whereas imprinting in
  ducks is a critical period

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The neuroscience of stress/trauma

• Many theories focus on the impact and
  significance of early trauma
• Studied physiologically by Hans Selye (1956) to
  include alarm, resistance and exhaustion
• Humans are somewhat unique in their ability to
  ruminate over past and future stressors and
  potential stressors (see Why zebras dont get
  ulcers Sapolsky, 2004)
• High emotional arousal whether from a trauma, or
  anticipated trauma (real or imagined) is
  associated with many personality disorders
• Influence of genetic predisposition, neonatal
  development and exposure to traumas to influence
  measurable changes in the brain

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Putting neurobiological theory to the test, part 2

• Debate on how/if serotonin is related to
  depression?
• Low levels of serotonin have been associated with
  irritability in animals (Depue, 1995) and
  depression in humans (e.g., SSRIs like Zoloft,
  Prozac, Paxil, Effexor, Serzone, etc.)
• Today we still do not understand the mechanisms
  affecting depression (Kirsch et al, 2002, 2010
  for a critique of SSRIs no better than placebo
  based on all FDA data, with 80 of therapeutic
  effects explained by placebo)
• Placebo also getting stronger, so not a constant
  for comparison (see link on class webpage).
• SSRIs and Placebos stimulate neurogenesis
  (Santarelli et al., 2003)

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Theoretical Neurobiological models

• Increasing complexity over the years
• Early fluid models of Galen (450 BC)
• Sanguine (blood) - cheerful
• Melancholic (black bile) - depressive
• Choleric (yellow bile) - irritable
• Phlegmatic (phlegm/mucus) - unemotional
• Blood/fluid letting to treat personality
• Why would this model persist over time? (primary
  targets of intervention?)

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Hans Eysenck (research from 1967- 1997)

• There are reliable differences in personality
  observed around the world (focused on 1)
  Intro/Extra, 2) Neuroticism/emotional stability,
  3) Psychoticism/ego strength
• Suggested biological determinants of personality
• Blood type there are also reliable differences
  in blood types observed around the world and
  these are the cause of different personality
  types (often mistaken for cultural influences)
• few findings emerged to support this perspective
• Brain activity activation in certain parts of
  the brain predicts different behaviors associated
  with certain traits
• more support for this model, especially for the
  traits of extraversion/introversion

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Eysencks Introversion/extraversion

• Differences in cortical activity in the ascending
  reticular activating system (ARAS) predict
  different behavior
• Theory (Eysenck, 1967)
• Extraverts are chronically under aroused and seek
  stimulation for the brain (ARAS)
• Introverts are chronically over aroused and seek
  to avoid stimulation (ARAS)
• Research
• Performance and exposure to loud/soft music
• Preferred and optimal volume of background music
  for a dual attention task
• No difference at baseline, but response to
  stimulation differs (greater for the introvert)

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Eysencks model for activating the brain

• Proposed that we can stimulate our brains through
  our interactions with others
• Extraverts seek out stimulation while introverts
  avoid it
• Interpersonal interactions result in increased
  brain activity, and this can be heightened by
  minimizing personal distance/personal space
• Differences in preference for personal space have
  been observed worldwide (e.g., UK approximately
  6 feet, African nations approx. 2 feet, US
  approx. 4 feet
• When people interact, they are attempting to
  reach their preferred personal space. This is
  difficult when different people have different
  personal space preferences
• Eysenck studied interactions at meetings of the
  United Nations (UN dance)

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Other factors that effect personal space?

• Spacing follows predictable patterns as
  individuals fill a room
• What circumstances allow for the violation of
  personal space preferences?
• 1. Environmental Crowding conditions allow us to
  tolerate personal space violations for short
  periods of time
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vrr7q-v7NIRQ
• 2. Self determined Altering eye contact can be
  used to either minimize physical closeness or
  increase it
• 3. Intimacy of the relationship (generally only
  permit violations of personal space for those
  emotionally close to you)

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How else do we stimulate our brains?

• Activities that are considered high in sensation
  seeking or need for stimulation (Zuckerman)
• skydiving, driving fast down a tight road,
  confrontations or other intense interactions with
  others that minimize personal distance, ingesting
  caffeine, sugar, nicotine, etc.
• Meta-analysis of sensation seeking and behavior
  (Roberti, 2004)
• SS higher for males and younger individuals
  (strong effect)
• SS higher for those who abuse substances (med to
  strong)
• SS higher for high risk sports (small to medium)
  skill issue
• SS higher for risky sexual behavior (medium to
  high)
• SS higher for gambling
• SS higher for exciting vacations and exciting
  hobbies (low to medium)

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BIS/BAS (J. Grey)

• A broader model that has recently received more
  empirical support involves more diffuse brain
  activation
• behavioral activating system (approach
  motivation)
• behavioral inhibition system (avoidance
  motivation)
• BAS individuals are focused on reinforcers not
  punishers (heightened neuronal sensitivity)
• BIS individuals are focused on punishers not
  reinforcers (heightened neuronal sensitivity)
• Related this to anxiety, depression, and several
  other disorders like alcoholism

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Other theoretical models

• Depues 3-factor model
• Positive emotionality (extraversion), constraint
  (ego strength), negative emotionality
  (neuroticism)
• Cloningers Unified Biosocial theory
• Novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward
  dependence
• Sievers dimensional model
• Cognitive/perceptual organization,
  impulsivity/aggression, affective instability,
  anxiety/inhibition
• In the chapter (9) on traits we will return to
  the idea of factors reflecting underlying
  traits.

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Biological evidence for abnormal behavior

• Schizophrenia is one of the disorders with the
  strongest biological evidence
• 48 incidence for those having both parents or an
  identical twin (MZ) with the disorder
• Evidence at the neuroanatomical level (enlarged
  ventricles) and neurochemical level (dopamine)
• For depression, there is also some neurochemical
  evidence (seratonin and epinephrin)
• Questionable research on genes that underlie
  disorders such as alcoholism, criminality, sexual
  identity, etc.
• The exact mechanisms in all cases are not fully
  understood (recall Humoral theory!)

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Understanding genetics

• Genes are arranged along chromosomes strands of
  paired DNA
• Human cells have 46 chromosomes (except sperm
  cells and egg cells, each of which have 23
  chromosomes)
• The union of the sperm egg cells creates a 46
  chromosome cell with a somewhat random selection
  of genetic material from each parent.
• Children will share 50 of their genetic
  composition with each biological parent.
• Full siblings also have a 50 genetic overlap as
  they .25 chance of sharing a gene from mother and
  .25 from father
• Monozygotic twins (identical) have 100 genetic
  overlap as they come from the same sperm and egg
• Dizygotic twins (fraternal) have 50 genetic
  overlap as they are formed from two sperm and two
  eggs (same as full siblings)
• Examine overlap of personality traits as a
  function of genetic overlap

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Do genetics underlie personality?

• Temperament stable individual differences in
  emotional reactivity
• Commonly studied in children (i.e., how does one
  respond to various stimuli such as a hug, loud
  noise, etc.)
• Use of twin studies to determine aspects of
  temperament that are due to genetics vs.
  environment (heritability coefficient - .4 to .6
  for most traits)
• Dunn Plomin, 1990 found heritability
  coefficients of .4 to .6 depending on the trait
  (e.g., neuroticism is highest, openness to new
  experience/creativity is lowest) Consistency is
  lowest in childhood highest after age 50 (Roberts
  Friend-DelVecchio, 2000)
• Comparison of monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ)
  twins (if there is twice as much overlap for the
  MZ twins relative to DZ twins then this suggests
  the role of heredity as MZ twins are genetically
  identical twice that of DZ twins)
• e.g., genes affect temperament (aggression) and
  this might influence if one plays a sport like
  football (vs. an athletic gene).

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Do MZ vs. DZ twins tell the whole story?

• If MZ twins are reared apart, does that mean that
  all similarities are due to genetics? (this is
  assumed)
• e.g., DZ twin with schizophrenia 17-24
  incidence MZ twin has a 48 incidence
• Similarities due to the fact that each person
  engenders similar responses from the environment
  (Phelps et al, 97)
• Monochorionic (MC) MZ twins have a single
  placenta and circulation system (about one third
  of cases)
• Dichorionic (DC) MZ twins - have two separate
  single placenta and circulation systems
• Consider the in utero environment (shared MC)
• MZ twins 48 when MZ is MC (drops to 28 when
  DC)
• More is due to environment than we thought

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Sokol et al., 1995

• Compared MC and DC MZ twins at ages 4 through 6
  using the Personality Inventory for Children.
• MC MZ twins were more similar on all 20 of the
  personality scales measures by the Personality
  Inventory for Children (13 were statistically
  significant)
• The observed differences can not be due to
  genetics since these are MZ twins (genetically
  identical), so differences must be due to the
  effects of the pre-birth environment.
• Note Also found differences between MC and DC MZ
  twins with regard to intelligence scores,
  incidence of schizophrenia, etc. (greater
  similarity for the MC twins)

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Assessment methods in neurobiological psychology

• Single cell recording (electrophysiology)
• Study of non-human species with large neurons
• Neuroanatomical studies
• Focus on brain injured patients
• Brain Lesioning and functional surgery
• Early 20th century practices (lobotomies to
  change behavior)
• Case studies of neurological disorders
• Personality changes seen in degenerative
  conditions like AD PD
• Neuropsychological testing
• Brain-behavior association using a large number
  of paper-and-pencil, interactive tests

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Technological tools and neurobiological assessment

• Electroencephalography (EEG) and neuroimaging
• Measuring evoked potentials in response to
  stimulation
• Brain imaging
• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
• Yields 3-D images of the brain with radio waves
• fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
• Adds real time activity of the brain to the
  standard MRI
• PET (positron emission tomography)
• Areas of the brain that are activated can be seen
  with radioactive isotopes
• NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy)
• Records fuel used by the brain (no deep tissue
  access)
• MEG (magnetoencephalography)
• Measures the magnetic field generated by the
  electrical activity of the brain)
• SPECT (single-photon emission computed
  tomography)
• Gamma rays to yield 3-D images

53
Overview and critique of bio. perspective

• General support for the fact that such activities
  alter brain activity and that there are
  individual differences in the brains
  responsiveness
• Problems standardizing how these advanced methods
  are used
• Some inconsistent findings and ongoing issues may
  be due to how brain activity is quantified
• intensity,
• duration,
• speed of neuronal response following exposure to
  the stimulus,
• Which is most accurate/correct?
• Each may indicate different findings.

54
Ch 5 Behavioral models of personality

• http//www.break.com/video/ugc/the-office-altoid-e
  xperiment-1499823
• Give me a dozen healthy infants, and I will make
  them at random (Watson, 1930) Tabula rasa
  (Locke, 1672)
• When a tone/chime denoting an incoming text
  occurs, what is your now well-learned behavioral
  response (even if the sound came from someone
  elses phone)?
• Does the McDonalds theme make you salivate?
• How long does it take you to experience relief
  after taking pain medication (in tablet form) for
  a headache?
• How does your dog respond when you pick up your
  keys?
• Are artists born or made? (see Cohen et al, 2002)
• Behaviorism is comprised of two types of
  learning
• 1) Classical and 2) Operant conditioning

55
Classical conditioning

• reflexive actions/learning by temporal
  associations
• The story of Pavlov, a dog, serendipity
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that
  produces a response without learning
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - a stimulus that
  produces a response after learning
• Unconditioned response (UCR) - a response to a
  stimulus that occurs without learning
• Conditioned response (CR) - learned response
• neutral stimulus - any stimulus that does not
  produce a response (all CS were neutral at one
  time)
• Before conditioning food UCS, salivating
  UCR, bell neutral stimulus
• After conditioning bell CS, salivating CR

56
What happens if we keep ringing the bell?

• Extinction - CS no longer produces the CR
• Spontaneous recovery - after a break, the
  previously extinct CS produces the CR
• Higher order conditioning - a CS is paired with
  another CS to get the CR (see diagram)
• What happens if we make a sound that is similar
  to the bell?

57
Key concepts - continued

• Generalization - producing the same CR for a
  similar CS (e.g., all alcohol anything that
  sounds like a bell)
• Discrimination - produces a CR for only a very
  specific CS (e.g. only Mad Dog wine high
  pitched bell)
• Conditioning neurosis? circle (food) vs. ellipse
  (no food)
• One time conditioning (Garcia effect) - learning
  occurs after a single pairing of neutral
  unconditioned stimulus
• Why would this be adaptive for aversive CRs?
• This can occur even for reinforcers and lead to
  non-productive behavior (e.g., superstitious
  behavior)
• In order to explain most of your day-to-day
  behavior it is also necessary to consider
  non-reflexive actions (not just salivating
  fears)

58
PTSD and responses to images

• A psychiatric illness with acute anxiety in
  response to a stressor and other similar
  experiences (i.e., generalization)
• Use of trauma-related images and
  non-trauma-related images to differentiate trauma
  survivors with and without PTSD Ehlers et al.,
  2010)
• Participants 162 survivors of MVA or assault
  recruited from ER (41 met criteria for PTSD 1
  month later)
• Exposed everyone to trauma-related, generally
  threatening and neutral images.
• PTSD subjects showed sig gt HR relative to
  controls only for trauma-related images. All
  showed gt HR for trauma/harm
• Illustrates generalization and discrimination

59
Putting Behavioral Theory to the Test Part 1 -
Preparedness for phobias, Ohman et al., 1985

• Learning may not occur randomly, rather we may be
  predisposed to learn some associations more
  easily
• e.g., Are we prepared to acquire some fears more
  easily? Most common fears(adaptive?)
• 70 male and female participants with no known
  history of phobias were recruited
• half of the subjects were assigned to a condition
  pairing flowers faces with shock threat while
  others paired shock threat with snakes and
  spiders
• All participants had arousal (fear) assessed
  using GSR and EEG readings
• stimuli were paired with the shock threat until a
  fear response was acquired. The findings

60
Rates of acquisition GSR EEG
High
Flowers Faces
Physiological Response
Spiders Snakes
Low
(number of pairings)
Time
61
Rates of extinction
High
Physiological Response
Spiders/Snakes
Flowers/Faces
Low
Time
62
Summary of Preparedness for phobias literature

• No difference in acquisition times (Ohman et al.,
  1985), but other studies have found differences
  in HR for acquisition
• Significant difference in extinction rates
  (faster for flowers and faces)
• Research generally shows that the fear response
  for phobia-relevant stimuli are acquired more
  quickly (HR), extinguished more slowly, less
  sensitive to extinction instructions, and can
  occur below the threshold for detection
  (unconscious?)
• Golkar et al., 2013 Katlin et al., 2001

63
Confounds/Strengths of the research

• Strengths
• Generally uses self-report and physiological
  measures of fear (multi-method of assessment)
• Use of multiple physiological measures (e.g., GSR
  EEG)
• Testing both acquisition and extinction times
• Weaknesses
• Can evolutionary adaptiveness be confirmed when
  only 0.1 of over 35,000 types of spiders are
  poisonous (i.e., is this a needed adaptation?)
  see putting learning theory to the Test, Part 2.

64
Evidence for belongingness

• Acquisition and extinction curves appear to be
  related to the extent to which the stimuli
  belongs with the aversive event (does the sensory
  modality for the UCS match that for the
  previously neutral, but now conditioned,
  stimulus?)
• e.g., shock (tactile) for spiders and snakes
  (tactile)
• e.g., aversive odor (olfactory) for a skunk
  (olfactory)

65
Operant conditioning- non-reflexive actions

• Law of effect every behavior has a consequence,
  and the consequence determines if the behavior
  will re-occur (temporal association is no longer
  required)
• Law of exercise the more a response stimulus
  are paired the more they are repeated (learning
  from repetition)
• Reinforcement - anything that increase the
  incidence of the behavior to which it is linked
• Punishment - anything that decreases the
  incidence of the behavior to which it is linked
• Different brain regions appear to be implicated
  in the process of reinforcement vs. punishment
  (Leotti Delgado, 2014)
• Partial reinforcement large, unpredictable
  reward
• Positive Punishment/Reinforcement - to add P or R
• Negative Punishment/Reinforcement - to remove P
  or R

66
Possible examples of reinforcers and punishers
Reinforcer
Punisher
To give praise, love, attention, money, etc. To give a shock, a spanking, a fine, etc.
To remove an aversive stimulus like pain, noise, etc. To remove something valued like freedom, attention, etc.
Positive
Negative
67
Delivery (Schedules) of reinforcement punishment

• Continuous - best way to acquire a new behavior
  (or extinguish an existing behavior)
• Why not ideal to maintain the new learning?
• Fixed Ratio set number of responses for the
  reinforcement
• Fixed Interval there is a set interval of time
  before the next response is reinforced/punished
• Variable Ratio - changing number of responses
  needed
• Variable Interval - changing amount of time
  needed
• Shaping for more complex behavior

68
Putting learning theory to the test, part 2

• Fears acquired by cultural practices or
  preparedness?
• Followed Ohman et als work of pairing pictures
  with aversive stimuli (Cook et al., 1986)
• Used actual shocks vs. shock threat
• Added a condition of handguns and rifles
  (cultural association with fear, but not
  evolutionary)
• Measured HR to indicate fear
• Found differences in acquisition and extinction
  curves for HR
• Acquisition and extinction curves similar for
  guns and rifles to those found in flowers and
  faces (different from spiders/snakes)
• Guns/rifles different in any other way from
  spiders/snakes?

69
Example schedules
Fixed
Variable
Pay checks, boss who checks in at 9am and 4pm, etc. - lengthy breaks until interval approaches (bursts of activity) Real estate agent, busy phone line, etc. - slow but steady rate (busy phone)
Assembly line worker - substantial decrease in work after reinforced Slot machines - most productive schedule with minimal pausing
Interval
Ratio
70
Behavioral Applications

• Token economies, Applied BA for treating autism
  spectrum disorders
• Treatment of simple phobias Phobias are intense
  fears (or non-normative fears) that lead to
  dysfunction
• Systematic desensitization developed by J.
  Wolpe
• Establish a fear hierarchy from least feared to
  most feared
• Progressive relaxation
• Systematically expose the individual to each
  stimulus on the fear hierarchy beginning with the
  lowest (up to several months)
• Must remain in a relaxed state while exposed to
  the stimulus
• Must NOT remove the feared stimulus until fear is
  diminished otherwise the fear is reinforced
• Fears can be reinforced without exposure to the
  stimulus
• If fears are acquired through random pairings,
  why are some fears (e.g., spiders, snakes) so
  common?

71
Behavioral concepts and their translation to
other theories

• Seligmans learned helpless as a model for
  depression
• First tested in animal models (shocking dogs with
  an escape route they escape, but shocking
  without an escape route leads to helplessness
  even in the absence of the barrier to escape)
• Redefining personality traits in behavioral terms
  with a focus on behavioral self-control
• e.g., procrastination is the process of task
  avoidance and is not seen when it is an enjoyable
  activity
• e.g., impulse disorders involve problems with
  self-control
• Anxiety conceptualized as behavioral avoidance
• Psychodynamic terms and parallel behavioral
  concepts
• Repression unlabeled drives, cues unconscious
• Projection based on generalization the
  expectation that others will react in Kind (see
  Dollard Miller, 1950 text p. 157)

72
Dollard Millers Learning Theory

• Primary Drives strong, unlearned drives that
  impel action
• e.g., hunger, thirst, pain, sex
• Secondary drives weaker, learned drives
• e.g., need for approval, need for independence,
  etc.
• Responses to drives can be dominant (more for
  primary drives) or weaker, and any response
  strengthens as it is repeated (rehearsed)
• Reinforcement defined as any stimulus that
  reduces a drive
• e.g., food is reinforcing only because (or when)
  the hunger drive is activated
• Addressing complex behavior by considering
  competing drives

73
Explaining more complex behavior

• Approach-approach conflicts
• Stimuli that provide two equally desirable
  consequences
• Attraction increases for the stimulus you have
  not selected and decreases for the one you have
  selected. Why?
• Examples?
• Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
• Stimuli that provide two equally undesirable
  consequences
• Fear increases for the stimulus you have selected
  and decreases for the stimulus you have not
  selected (moving away from).
• Examples?

74
Conflict from a single stimulus

• Approach-avoidance conflicts (Dollard Millar)
• The same stimulus provides both reinforcing and
  punishing qualities and both increase in
  intensity as you move toward it.
• Examples?
• Semi-starved animal seeking food on electrified
  grid
• The phone call
• The rate at which fear and attraction
  increase/decrease is not the same and varies as a
  function of the distance to the target.
• See diagram

75
Graph Arousal by distance
High Arousal
Fear (avoidance)
Attraction/Pleasure (approach)
Note The avoidance gradient is steeper than the
approach gradient
Low Arousal
Far
Near
DISTANCE FROM TARGET
76
Behavioral assessments

• Behavioral reactivity change as a function of
  monitoring
• The short-term success of most diets, financial
  planning programs, quit smoking attempts is due
  to reactivity (like demand effects)
• Applied Behavior Analysis both a technique for
  intervention and method of assessment (typically
  done pre and post intervention)
• Analysis of reinforcers, punishers, schedules,
  etc. to better understand how behaviors are
  shaped, reinforced, and maintained.
• Behavioral observation (children) or self-report
  of behaviors (adults)
• e.g., why does child behave more problematically
  following punishment?
• Many behavioral scales
• Children (e.g., Neonatal Behavioral Assessment)
  and
• Adults (especially cognitively compromised
  adults)
• Cultural variants simply interpreted as
  distinct environments

77
Skinners article Man

• Why, according to Skinner, do we resist
  behaviorism?
• No freedom (Walden Two Society based on pos
  reinforcement)
• Radical determinism
• What are the consequences of accepted
  behaviorism?
• No real wishes, impulses, emotions,
  attitudes
• A simple act does not mean that someone is brave,
  virtuous, or loving. People are just conditioned
  to act virtuous, brave, or loving.
• Skinner was against the concept of personality,
  as it was used in the 1940s and earlier, because
  it implied something internal and unique to you
  (rather than emphasizing the environment).
• Of course, non-psychodynamic theorists have also
  defined personality as a stable pattern of
  behavior (more resistant to variations in the
  environment)
• No true freedom of choice? (control over
  environment genetics?)