Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)

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Unit 2 Memory (Cognition)

• Essential Task 2-2
• Outline principles that help improve memory
  functioning at each stage
• encoding - attention, chunking, serial
  positioning effect, deep versus shallow
  processing, and rote rehearsal
• storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal,
  spacing effect, method of loci, and link method
• retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive
  interference

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Essential Task 2-2
Outline

• Improving Encoding
• attention
• chunking
• serial positioning effect
• Schemata and Hierarchy
• deep versus shallow processing
• Improving storage
• decay theory
• spacing effect
• Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal
• Mnemonics like method of loci and link method
• Retrieval
• Retrieval Cues and Priming
• Situational factors
• State dependent
• Allow for Parallel Processing
• Overcoming retroactive interference
• Overcoming proactive interference

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Improving Encoding
Outline
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Attention? Pay Attention

• You can consciously decide to pay attention to
  something.
• If you dont pay attention it wont enter your
  STM and never get to your IPM.

Outline
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Chunking

• The grouping of information into meaningful units
  for easier handling by short term memory.
• M-S-N-N-A-S-A-C-I-A-C-O-M
• Or
• MSN NASA CIA COM

Outline
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Conduct Inclusive Memory Activity Now
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Serial Position Effect

• People tend to recall the first items (primacy
  effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list
• Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work
  together
• Primacy effect reflects long-term memory
• Recency effect reflects short-term memory

Outline
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Serial Position Effect
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Schemata

• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations
  about something based on past experience
• Incoming information is fit with existing
  schemata
• (concept maps)
• Schemata can also influence the amount of
  attention paid to a given event
• Reconstruction
• Memories can be altered with each retrieval
• We do this to keep the schemata of our self and
  our environment

Outline
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
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Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
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Conduct Processing Activity Now
Outline
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Deep Versus Shallow Processing

• Deep Processing analyzes meaning
• Shallow processing does not

Outline
Outline
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Improving Storage
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Decay Theory

• The decay theory argues that the passage of time
  causes forgetting.
• The longer information is not accessed, increases
  the chances of forgetting it.

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Spacing Effect

• Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
  than practicing all at once. You can memorize a
  poem a lot easier if you break it down into 5
  parts over 5 days instead of all at once.

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Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Rote rehearsal
• Repetition can result in long-term memory
• Only effective if there is intent to learn
  material
• Example What does a penny look like?

Outline
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Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Elaborative rehearsal
• Process of relating new information to
  information already stored in memory
• Meaning is assigned to new information and then
  linked to as much existing knowledge as possible
• Hence Psych Immersions

Outline
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Link Method

• First imagine a silly, memorable image that
  represents the type of list you want to remember.
  Also include in this image the first item on the
  list (see below for example). This image is your
  header for the list.
• Think of another silly, memorable image that
  links the first item on the list to the second
  item and so on.

Outline
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Method of Loci

• In this technique the subject memorizes the
  layout of some building, or the arrangement of
  shops on a street, or any geographical entity
  which is composed of a number of discrete loci.
  When desiring to remember a set of items the
  subject literally 'walks' through these loci and
  commits an item to each one by forming an image
  between the item and any distinguishing feature
  of that locus.

Outline
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Improving Retrieval
Outline
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Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
truck
smoke
heat
red
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Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
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Where and when matters

• Situational factors
• Recall of information is better if environment is
  the same as when information was learned
• State-dependent memory
• Recall of information is better if person is in
  the same physiological state as when information
  was learned

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Parallel Processing

• Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you can
  almost recall something, but cant quite get it.
• If you leave it your brain will continue to work
  on this problem eventually surfacing with the
  answer.
• Thus you later yell out the name of the actor and
  everyone looks at you like you are odd.

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Interference

• Retroactive interference
• Occurs when new information interferes with
  information already in memory
• Retro means old
• In this term the old information is being tested
• Thus the new information is doing the
  interference.

Outline
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Try remembering the following number

• 8132163
• Ok that was easy because nothing interfered with
  you.

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Now lets try some interference

• 4982631
• First, consistent with cognitive dissonance
  theories, we are able to induce optimism or
  pessimism with the initial (random) wage
  assignment. With respect to the first-stage task,
  this implies that we can successfully manipulate
  ones ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly,
  subjects who received this low piece-rate in
  stage one were willing to accept significantly
  lower offers in a second-stage ultimatum game.
  This finding is striking, demonstrating the
  presence of both belief manipulation and
  spillovers of those beliefs into behavioral
  outcomes in an unrelated and distinct
  experimental environment.

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Try remembering the following number

• 5614982
• 92589386

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Retro-active Interference

• The last two were examples of retro-active
  interference
• In each one, it was the OLD (retro) information
  that was being tested.
• The last trial was the hardest because it
  overloaded your modality.
• What type of music should you listen to when you
  write an essay?

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Retroactive Interference
Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference.
Therefore, it leads to better recall.
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Interference

• Proactive interference
• This is when new information is being tested.
• The old information already in your LTM
  interferes.
• It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new
  tricks.
• Psychologists have found that recall of later
  items can be improved by making them distinctive
  from early items. For example, people being fed
  groups of numbers to remember did much better
  when they were suddenly fed a group of words
  instead. This is called release from proactive
  interference

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I need a volunteer that knows their colors.

• Dont read the words, just say the colors theyre
  printed in and as fast as you can
• This is called the stroop effect

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• Red
• Yellow
• Green
• Blue
• Red
• Blue
• Yellow
• Green
• Blue
• Red

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Interference

• When you look at the words you see both its
  color and meaning.
• When they are in conflict you must make a choice
• Experience has taught you that word meaning is
  more important than color so you retrieve that
  information.
• You are not always in complete control of what
  you pay attention to.

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Schemata

• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations
  about something based on past experience
• Incoming information is fit with existing
  schemata
• Schemata can also influence the amount of
  attention paid to a given event
• Reconstruction
• Memories can be altered with each retrieval
• We do this to keep the schemata of our self and
  our environment

Outline