Title: Modern Computer Architectures Lecture 4: Branch Prediction MultipleIssue Processors Limits to ILP
1Modern Computer ArchitecturesLecture 4 Branch
PredictionMultiple-Issue ProcessorsLimits to ILP
- Dr. Ben Juurlink
- Fall 2001
2Branch PredictionMotivation
- Scoreboard and Tomasulo stop issuing instructions
when a branch is encountered - With on average one out of five instructions
being a branch, the maximum ILP is five - Situation even worse for multiple-issue
processors, because we need to provide an
instruction stream of n instructions per cycle. - Idea predict the outcome of branches based on
their history and execute instructions
speculatively
35 Branch Prediction Schemes
- 1-bit Branch Prediction Buffer
- 2-bit Branch Prediction Buffer
- Correlating Branch Prediction Buffer
- Branch Target Buffer
- Return Address Predictors
- . A way to get rid of those malicious branches
41-bit Branch Prediction Buffer
- 1-bit branch prediction buffer or branch history
table - Buffer is like a cache without tags
- Does not help for simple DLX pipeline because
target address calculations in same stage as
branch condition calculation
10..10 101 00
PC
BHT
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
52-bit Branch Prediction Buffer
- sad 0
- for (i0 ilt16 i)
- for (j0 jlt16 j)
- if ((v aij-bij) lt 0) v -v
- sad v
-
- Problem in a nested loop, 1-bit BHT will cause
2 mispredictions - End of loop case, when it exits instead of
looping as before - First time through loop on next time through
code, when it predicts exit instead of looping - Only 88 accuracy even if loop 94 of the time
62-bit Branch Prediction Buffer
- Solution 2-bit scheme where prediction is
changed only if mispredicted twice - Can be implemented as a saturating counter
T
NT
Predict Taken
Predict Taken
T
T
NT
NT
Predict Not Taken
Predict Not Taken
T
NT
7Correlating Branches
- Fragment from SPEC92 benchmark eqntott
- if (aa2) subi R3,R1,2
- aa 0 b1 bnez R3,L1
- if (bb2) add R1,R0,R0
- bb0 L1 subi R3,R2,2
- if (a!b) b2 bnez R3,L2
- add R2,R0,R0
- L2 sub R3,R1,R2
- b3 beqz R3,L3
8Correlating Branch Predictor
4 bits from branch address
- Idea behavior of this branch is related to
taken/not taken history of recently executed
branches - Then behavior of recent branches selects between,
say, 4 predictions of next branch, updating just
that prediction - (2,2) predictor 2-bit global, 2-bit local
- (m,n) predictor uses behavior of last m branches
to choose from 2m predictors, each of which is
n-bit predictor
2-bits per branch local predictors
Prediction
shift register
2-bit global branch history (01 not taken then
taken)
9Accuracy of Different Branch Predictors
18
Mispredictions Rate
0
4096 Entries 2-bit BHT Unlimited Entries 2-bit
BHT 1024 Entries (2,2) BHT
10BHT Accuracy
- Mispredict because either
- Wrong guess for that branch
- Got branch history of wrong branch when index the
table - 4096 entry table misprediction rates vary from
1 (nasa7, tomcatv) to 18 (eqntott), with spice
at 9 and gcc at 12 - For SPEC92, 4096 about as good as infinite table
- Real programs OS more like gcc
11Branch Target Buffer
- For DLX pipeline, need target address at same
time as prediction - Branch Target Buffer (BTB) Address of branch
index to get prediction AND branch address (if
taken) - Note must check for branch match now, since can
be any instruction
10..10 101 00
PC
Yes instruction is branch. Use predicted PC as
next PC if branch predicted taken.
?
Branch prediction
No instruction is not a branch. Proceed normally
12Instruction Fetch Stage
- Not shown hardware needed when prediction was
wrong
found taken
target address
13Special Case Return Addresses
- Register indirect branches hard to predict
target address - MIPS/DLX instruction jr r31 PC r31
- useful for
- implementing switch/case statements
- FORTRAN computed GOTOs
- procedure return (mainly)
- SPEC89 85 such branches for procedure return
- Since stack discipline for procedures, save
return address in small buffer that acts like a
stack 8 to 16 entries has small miss rate
14Dynamic Branch Prediction Summary
- Prediction becoming important part of scalar
execution - Branch History Table 2 bits for loop accuracy
- Correlation Recently executed branches
correlated with next branch - Either different branches
- Or different executions of same branch
- Branch Target Buffer include branch target
address prediction - Return address stack for prediction of indirect
jumps
15Predicated Instructions
- Avoid branch prediction by turning branches into
conditional or predicated instructions - if (x) then A B op C else NOP
- If false, then neither store result nor cause
exception - Expanded ISA of Alpha, MIPS, PowerPC, SPARC have
conditional move PA-RISC can annul any following
instr. - IA-64 conditional execution of any instruction
- Examples
- if (R10) R2 R3 CMOVZ R2,R3,R1
- if (R1 lt R2) SLT R9,R1,R2
- R3 R1 CMOVNZ R3,R1,R9
- else CMOVZ R3,R2,R9
- R3 R2
16Administratrivia
- Have you all chosen a project/topic?
- When I received all your topics, I will make a
schedule of the presentations. Presentations
related to memory hierarchy last.
17Getting CPI lt 1 Multiple-Issue Processors
- Vector Processing Explicit coding of independent
loops as operations on large vectors of numbers - Multimedia instructions being added to many
processors - Multiple-Issue Processors
- Superscalar varying no. instructions/cycle (1 to
8), scheduled by compiler or by HW (Tomasulo)
(dynamic issue capability) - IBM PowerPC, Sun UltraSparc, DEC Alpha, Pentium
III/4 - (Very) Long Instruction Words (V)LIW fixed
number of instructions (4-16) scheduled by the
compiler (static issue capability) - Intel Architecture-64 (IA-64)
- Renamed Explicitly Parallel Instruction
Computer (EPIC) - Anticipated success of multiple instructions led
to Instructions Per Cycle (IPC) metric instead
of CPI
18Statically Scheduled Superscalar
- Superscalar MIPS/DLX 2 instructions, 1 anything
1 FP - Fetch 64-bits/clock cycle Int on left, FP on
right - Can only issue 2nd instruction if 1st
instruction issues - More ports needed for FP register file to
execute FP load FP op in parallel - Type Pipe Stages
- Int. instruction IF ID EX MEM WB
- FP instruction IF ID EX MEM WB
- Int. instruction IF ID EX MEM WB
- FP instruction IF ID EX MEM WB
- Int. instruction IF ID EX MEM WB
- FP instruction IF ID EX MEM WB
- 1 cycle load delay expands to 3 instructions in
SS - instruction in right half cant use it, nor
instructions in next slot - Using this design, only FP loads and convert int
to float instructions can cause data hazards
19Example
- for (i1 ilt1000 i)
- ai ais
- Integer instruction FP instruction Cycle
- L LD F0,0(R1) 1
- LD F6,8(R1) 2
- LD F10,16(R1) ADDD F4,F0,F2 3
- LD F14,24(R1) ADDD F8,F6,F2 4
- LD F18,32(R1) ADDD F12,F10,F2 5
- SD 0(R1),F4 ADDD F16,F14,F2 6
- SD 8(R1),F8 ADDD F20,F18,F2 7
- SD 16(R1),F12 8
- ADDI R1,R1,40 9
- SD -16(R1),F16 10
- BNE R1,R2,L 11
- SD -8(R1),F20 12
Load 1 cycle latency ALU op 2 cycles latency
- 2.4 cycles per element vs. 3.5 for ordinary DLX
pipeline - Int and FP instructions not perfectly balanced
20Dynamically Scheduled SuperscalarsIssues
- Dynamically scheduled superscalar HW potentially
reorders instructions and sends them to correct
execution unit. Extend Scoreboard or Tomasulo. - issue packet group of instructions from fetch
unit that could potentially issue in one cycle - If instruction causes structural or data hazard
either due to earlier instruction in execution or
to earlier instruction in issue packet, then
instruction cannot be issued - 0 to N instruction issues per clock cycle, for
N-issue - Performing issue checks in 1 cycle could limit
clock cycle time O(n2) comparisons - gt issue stage usually split and pipelined
- 1st stage decides how many instructions from
within this packet can issue, 2nd stage examines
hazards among selected instructions and those
already issued - gt higher branch penalties gt prediction accuracy
important
21Multiple Issue Issues
- While Integer/FP split is simple for the HW, get
IPI of 2 only for programs with - Exactly 50 FP operations AND no hazards
- If more instructions issue at same time, greater
difficulty of decode and issue - Even 2-issue superscalar gt examine 2 opcodes, 6
register specifiers, and decide if 1 or 2
instructions can issue (N-issue O(N2)
comparisons) - Register file for 2-issue superscalar need 2x
reads and 1x writes/cycle - Rename logic must be able to rename same
register multiple times in one cycle! For
instance, consider 4-way issue - add r1, r2, r3 add p11, p4, p7 sub r4, r1,
r2 ? sub p22, p11, p4 lw r1, 4(r4) lw p23,
4(p22) add r5, r1, r2 add p12, p23, p4 - Imagine doing this transformation in a single
cycle! - Result buses Need to complete multiple
instructions/cycle - So, need multiple buses with associated matching
logic at every reservation station.
22VLIW Processors
- Superscalar HW too difficult to build gt let
compiler find independent instructions and pack
them in one Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) - Example VLIW processor with 2 ld/st units, two
FP units, one integer/branch unit, no branch
delay - Ld/st 1 Ld/st 2 FP 1 FP 2 Int
- LD F0,0(R1) LD F6,8(R1)
- LD F10,16(R1) LD F14,24(R1)
- LD F18,32(R1) LD F22,40(R1) ADDD F4,F0,F2 ADDD
F8,F6,F2 - LD F26,48(R1) ADDD ADDD
- F12,F10,F2 F16,F14,F2
- ADDD ADDD
- F20,F18,F2 F24,F22,F2
- SD 0(R1),F4 SD 8(R1),F8 ADDD
- F28,F26,F2
- SD 16(R1),F12 SD 24(R1),F16
- SD 32(R1),F20 SD 40(R1),F24 ADDI
- R1,R1,56
- SD 8(R1),F28 BNE R1,R2,L
23Limitations of Multiple-Issue Processors
- Available ILP is limited (were not programming
with parallelism in mind) - Hardware cost
- adding more functional units is easy
- more memory ports and register ports needed
- dependency check needs O(n2) comparisons
- Limitations of VLIW processors
- Loop unrolling increases code size
- Unfilled slots wastes bits
- Cache miss stalls pipeline
- Research topic scheduling loads
- Binary incompatibility (not EPIC)
24Limits to ILP
- Conflicting studies of amount
- Benchmarks (vectorized Fortran FP vs. integer C
programs) - Hardware sophistication
- Compiler sophistication
- How much ILP is available using existing
mechanisms with increasing HW budgets? - Do we need to invent new HW/SW mechanisms to keep
on processor performance curve? - Intel MMX, SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions) 64
bit ints - Intel SSE2 128 bit, including 2 64-bit FP
operations per cycle - Motorola AltaVec 128 bit ints and FPs
- Supersparc Multimedia ops, etc.
25Ideal Processor
- Assumptions for ideal/perfect processor
- 1. Register renaming infinite number of
virtual registers gt all register WAW WAR
hazards avoided - 2. Branch and Jump prediction Perfect gt all
program instructions available for execution - 4. Memory-address alias analysis addresses are
known. A store can be moved before a load
provided addresses not equal - Also
- unlimited number of instructions issued/cycle
(unlimited resources) - perfect caches
- 1 cycle latency for all instructions (FP ,/)
- Programs were compiled using MIPS compiler with
maximum optimization level
26Upper Limit to ILP Ideal Processor
Integer 18 - 60
FP 75 - 150
IPC
27More Realistic HWWindow Size and Branch Impact
- Change from Infinite window to examine 2000 and
issue at most 64 instructions per cycle
FP 15 - 45
Integer 6 12
IPC
Perfect Tournament BHT(512) Profile No
prediction
28More Realistic HWImpact of Limited Renaming
Registers
- Changes 2000 instr. window, 64 instr. issue, 8K
2-level predictor (slightly better that
tournament predictor)
FP 11 - 45
Integer 5 - 15
IPC
Infinite 256 128 64 32
29More Realistic HW Memory Address Alias Impact
- Changes 2000 instr. window, 64 instr. issue, 8K
2-level predictor, 256 renaming registers
FP 4 - 45 (Fortran, no heap)
Integer 4 - 9
IPC
Perfect Global/stack perfect Inspection
None
30Realistic HW for 00 Window Size Impact
- Assumptions Perfect disambiguation, 1K Selective
predictor, 16 entry return stack, 64 renaming
registers, issue as many as window
FP 8 - 45
IPC
Integer 6 - 12
Infinite 256 128 64 32
16 8 4
31How to Exceed ILP Limits of This Study?
- WAR and WAW hazards through memory eliminated
WAW and WAR hazards through register renaming,
but not in memory - Unnecessary dependences (compiler did not unroll
loops so iteration variable dependence) - Overcoming the data flow limit value prediction,
predicting values and speculating on prediction - Address value prediction and speculation predicts
addresses and speculates by reordering loads and
stores. Could provide better aliasing analysis
32Workstation Microprocessors 3/2001
- Max issue 4 instructions (many CPUs)Max rename
registers 128 (Pentium 4) Max BHT 4K x 9
(Alpha 21264B), 16Kx2 (Ultra III)Max Window Size
(OOO) 126 intructions (Pent. 4)Max Pipeline
22/24 stages (Pentium 4)
Source Microprocessor Report, www.MPRonline.com
33SPEC 2000 Performance 3/2001 Source
Microprocessor Report, www.MPRonline.com
34Conclusions
- 1985-2000 1000X performance
- Moores Law transistors/chip gt Moores Law for
Performance/CPU - Hennessy industry been following a roadmap of
ideas known in 1985 to exploit Instruction Level
Parallelism and (real) Moores Law to get
1.55X/year - Caches, Pipelining, Superscalar, Branch
Prediction, Out-of-order execution, - ILP limits To make performance progress in
future need to have explicit parallelism from
programmer vs. implicit parallelism of ILP
exploited by compiler, HW? - Otherwise drop to old rate of 1.3X per year?
- Less than 1.3X because of processor-memory
performance gap? - Impact on you if you care about performance,
better think about explicitly parallel
algorithms vs. rely on ILP?
35Tournament Predictors
- Motivation for correlating branch predictors is
2-bit predictor failed on important branches by
adding global information, performance improved - Tournament predictors use 2 predictors, 1 based
on global information and 1 based on local
information, and combine with a selector - Hopes to select right predictor for right branch
36Tournament Predictor in Alpha 21264
- 4K 2-bit counters to choose from among a global
predictor and a local predictor - Global predictor also has 4K entries and is
indexed by the history of the last 12 branches
each entry in the global predictor is a standard
2-bit predictor - 12-bit pattern ith bit 0 gt ith prior branch not
taken ith bit 1 gt ith prior branch taken - Local predictor consists of a 2-level predictor
- Top level a local history table consisting of
1024 10-bit entries each 10-bit entry
corresponds to the most recent 10 branch outcomes
for the entry. 10-bit history allows patterns 10
branches to be discovered and predicted. - Next level Selected entry from the local history
table is used to index a table of 1K entries
consisting a 3-bit saturating counters, which
provide the local prediction - Total size 4K2 4K2 1K10 1K3 29K
bits! - (180,000 transistors)
37 of predictions from local predictor in
Tournament Prediction Scheme
38Accuracy of Branch Prediction
- Profile branch profile from last
execution(static in that in encoded in
instruction, but profile)
39Accuracy v. Size (SPEC89)