Diffusion Of Innovations

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Diffusion Of Innovations
E. Rogers
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Four Main Elements in the Diffusion of Innovations
1. The innovation
2. Communication channels
3. Time
4. A social system
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Innovation

• An idea, object, or process
• Perceived as new
• By an individual or organization

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Diffusion of Innovations

• A process by which an innovation is communicated
  through certain channels over time among the
  members of a social system.

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Diffusion of Innovations

• The type of communication is special in that the
  messages are concerned with new ideas.
• Communication is a process in which participants
  create a mutual understanding.
• Uncertainty exists because new ideas are part of
  the communication.

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Technological Innovations

• Technology transferThe process of communicating
  a technology from a source organization (often
  RD) to a receptor organization.

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Technology Transfer
Difficult due to Who is involved Roles Back
grounds How they are involved Physical
distances Social distances (heterophily)
Xerox
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Source of Technological Innovations

• Technological determinism
• The social construction of technology
• The innovation-development process
• The role of the lead user
• Diffusion and innovation-development as a social
  process involving human communication

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Technological determinism

• Assumes technology is autonomous (outside society)

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Social construction of technology

• People giving meaning, forming perceptions
• Technology shaped by social forces

Society
Technology
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Innovation-development process

• 1. Basic Research
• 2. Applied Research
• 3. Development
• 4. Commercialization
• 5. Diffusion
• 6. Consequences

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Role of the lead user

• Lead user
• As individual or organization who takes the lead
  in creating a technological innovation, which
  they then influence another organization to
  produce and sell.

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Role of the lead user
Invention of the microprocessor
Intel founded (1960) as semiconductor memory
company (Bob Noyce). Dr. Ted Hoff graduates from
Stanford University and joins intel. Dr. Shima
and design team from Busicom, a Japanese
calculator company, come to Intel for discussion
of the need for a twelve chip set. Hoff
envisions the microprocessor (computer on a
chip). Shima and Hoff collaborate over future
months to design the microprocessor. Intel
executives resisted the innovation But Intel is
a memory ship company. Marketing director
decides its a go. Intel 4004, the worlds
first microprocessor produced in 1971.
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Diffusion and innovation-development as a social
process
Human Communication

• Mass media channels of communication can create
  awareness-knowledge of an innovation, but
  interpersonal communication with peers is most
  important in persuading an individual to adopt
  the new idea.
• Most individuals evaluate the potential benefits
  of an innovation through the subjective
  experiences of others with the new idea, rather
  than on the basis of objective evaluations made
  by themselves or others.

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Diffusion Systems

• CentralizedDecision about when to begin
  diffusing an innovation, who should evaluate it
  and through what channels it will be diffused,
  are made by a small number of officials and/or
  technical experts.
• DecentralizedDecisions more widely shared by
  the clients and potential adopters here,
  horizontal networks among the clients are the
  main mechanism through which innovations spread.

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Information and the innovation - decision process

• A technology is designed for instrumental action
  that reduces the uncertainty in the cause-effect
  relationships involved in achieving a desired
  outcome.
• Hardware and software components
• Innovation-decision process (information to
  reduce uncertainty)

Software information - embodied in a technology
and serves to reduce uncertainty about the
cause-effect relationships involved in achieving
a desired outcome.Innovation-evaluation
information - reduction in uncertainty about an
innovations expected consequences.
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The innovation-decision process Three models

• 1. Stages in the innovation-decision process for
  an individualAdoption, rejection,
  discontinuance, re-invention
• 2. The role of interpersonal vs. mass
  communication channels
• 3. Indigenous knowledge systems

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Stages in the innovation-decision process for an
individual
X
Knowledge
Persuasion
Decision
Implementation
Confirmation
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Stages in the innovation-decision process for an
individual
Knowledge Seeks software information about
cause-effect
Knowledge
Awareness - What is it How-to - How does it
work Principles - Why does it work
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Stages in the innovation-decision process for an
individual
PersuasionSeeks innovation-evaluation information
Knowledge
Mass media Personal interactions
Persuasion
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Stages in the innovation-decision process for an
individual
Adoption A decision to make full use of an
innovation as the next course of
action. Rejection A decision not to
adopt. Active Rejection consider but then not
adopt. Passive Rejection Never considering.
DecisionSeeks innovation-evaluation information
Knowledge
Persuasion
Decision
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Stages in the innovation-decision process for an
individual
Invention The process by which a new idea is
discovered or created. Re-invention The degree
to which an innovation is changed or modified by
the user in the process of its adoption and
implementation. Re-invention is not necessarily
bad
Knowledge
Persuasion
Decision
Implementation
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Stages in the innovation-decision process for an
individual
Adoption and implementation is not the last
stage. Individuals often seek confirmation after
adoption. Did I do the right thing? Discontinuance
a decision to reject an innovation after having
previously adopted it.
Knowledge
Persuasion
Decision
Implementation
Confirmation
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The role of interpersonal vs. mass communication
channels
Interpersonal
Mass Media
Relative
Knowledge
Decision
Confirmation
Persuasion
Implementation
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Relationship between adopters and stage of
adoption
100
75
Laggards
Interpersonal
50
Innovators
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Knowledge
Decision
Confirmation
Persuasion
Implementation
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Indigenous knowledge systems

• Existing ideas and beliefs of potential
  adopters
• Empty vessel fallacyAssumes the potential
  adopters are blank slates
• Key Start with what individuals already know and
  believe.

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Characteristics of Innovations
The characteristics (or attributes) of
innovations, as perceived by individuals, help to
explain their rate of adoption.
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Characteristics of Innovations

• 1. Relative advantageBetter idea, economic,
  prestige, convenience
• 2. CompatibilityConsistent with values and
  experiences
• 3. ComplexityUnderstanding difficulty
• 4. TrialabilityExperimentation on limited basis
• 5. ObservabilityVisible to others (peer
  discussions)

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Characteristics of Innovations

• Incremental Preventative innovationsIncrementa
  l Adopt innovation and short time after get
  benefit.
• Preventative Adopt innovation (may be
  unpleasant) and long time later may avoid
  unwanted event.
• A preventative innovation is a new idea that an
  individual adopts in order to avoid the possible
  occurrence of some unwanted event in the future.
  (e.g.. contraceptives, seat belts, buying
  insurance)

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Characteristics of Innovations

• Taboo Innovations
• Taboo innovations are those e new ideas or
  practices that are perceived as being extremely
  private and personal in nature because they deal
  with proscribed behavior.(AIDS prevention
  involves both taboo and preventative innovations
  -- very difficult)

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Communication Channels

• Communication channels are the means by which
  messages get from one individual to another. The
  nature of the information exchange will effect
  the transfer.
• Type of channelsMass media -- efficient,
  awareness knowledgeInterpersonal -- effective,
  persuasive
• Heterophily / HomophilyPairs if individuals
  alike/different in beliefs, education, social
  status, etc.Communication more effective when
  homophilyNature of diffusion implies some
  heterophily

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Adopter categories
100
Innovation 1
Innovation 2
Innovation 3
Laggards
Percent of adoption
Late majority
Early majority
Early adopters
Innovators
0
Time
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Time - Adopter Categories
Category
Assessment
Communication
Innovators/pioneersEarly adoptersEarly
majorityLate majorityLaggards
Relative advantageCompatibilityComplexityTri
alabilityObservability
ExternalExternalExt-InternalInt-ExternalIn
ternal
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Time - Rate of Adoption

• Relative speed with which an innovation is
  adopted by members of a social system.
• Differences in the rate of adoption of the same
  innovation in different social systems.
• Some innovations are more readily adopted than
  others
• Some social systems are more ready to adopt
  innovations than others.

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Speed of adoption related to innovation
characteristics
Impact on Speed
Characteristic
Relative advantageCompatibilityComplexityTri
alabilityObservability
Increase Increase Decrease Increase Increase
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Social System

• A set of interrelated units that are engaged in
  joint problem solving to accomplish a common
  goal.
• StructureFormal - designedInformal -
  Interpersonal networks
• NormsEstablished behavior patterns for the
  members of a social system. They define a range
  of tolerable behavior and serve as a guide or a
  standard for the members of a social system.

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Social System Roles

• Opinion Leader
• Innovator
• Change Agent
• Aide
• Receiver

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Social System Roles - Opinion Leader

• Opinion LeadersAbility to influence anothers
  attitudes or behavior informally in a desired
  way.Earned by technical competence, social
  accessibility, conformity to system norms
• CharacteristicsMore exposed to external
  communicationMore cosmopolitanHigher social
  statusMore innovative (within norms)Center of
  interpersonal communication network
• Homophilous

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Social System Roles - Innovator

• Perceived as a deviant from the social system.
  Assigned low credibility and status by members.
• Heterophilous

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Social System Roles - Change Agent

• Influences individuals/groups decisions in the
  direction of the innovation. Uses opinion leaders
  in diffusion campaigns
• Professionals
• Heterophilous

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Social System Roles - Aide

• Intensively contacts individuals to influence
  their innovation decisions.
• Homophilous
• Bridge gap between change agent and target
  individuals/groups.

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Type of Innovation Decision

• 1. OptionalMade by individuals independent of
  other individuals of the system
• 2. CollectiveMade by consensus among membersAll
  units must conform
• 3. AuthorityMade by people who have power,
  status, technical expertiseFastest rate of
  adoption
• 4. ContingentSequential combination of two or
  more of the previous three types