Qualitative, Observation

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Qualitative, Observation Ethics

• Network of Hope

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Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research

• Quantitative V Qualitative
• Traditional approach ? Empiricism ? Positivism-
  Quantification
• Mirrors Natural Sciences
• Experimental
• Objective
• Systematic - behaviour as measurable
• Structured / mechanistic / rigorous
• Predictive ? hypothesis testing

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Quantitative Research

• Pros and cons of Quantitative Research
• Predictive
• Efficient / Cost Effective
• Generalise to a wider population
• Statistical validity- of Quantitative Research,
  but
• Lack ecological validity
• Reductionist
• Deterministic
• Experimenter bias

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Qualitative Research

• Interpretative Research
• Qualitative techniques
• Subjective experience
• Meaning not imposed but constructed
• Language
• Interviews
• Focus Groups
• Diaries
• Discourse Analysis
• Content Analysis
• Thematic Analysis

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Reflexivity

• Reflexivity impacts into
• Individual - account
• Researcher interpretation

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and pros and cons of Qualitative Research

• Rich data / meaning
• Real life / relevant
• Expensive
• time consuming (transcription/analysis is
  laborious)
• training relies on experience
• Subjective could be pro, or con!
• Potential for bias

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Interview gt thematic analysis

• Triangulation

Questionnaire
Observation
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Quantitative V Qualitative

• Value Free
• Objective
• Detached
• Averages to norm
• Hypothesis Testing
• Fixed
• Abstract
• Passive

• Political
• Interpretative
• Empathic
• Individualises
• Speculative
• Subjective
• Flexible
• Grounded
• Active
• Reflexive

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Observation

• Observe an unconstrained segment of a person or
  animals freely chosen behaviour
• Can be an add-on, or a design in itself
• Involves systematic description of events,
  behaviours, frequencies etc.
• Can be done both inside the lab, and in the real
  world (high ecological validity)

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Why Observe?

• To study interactions within a group (human or
  animal)

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To study more naturalistic behaviour
Personal space
Paganism in uk
Natural behaviour of the
rat
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To study a specific setting e.g. hospital
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Time sampling

• Observe for a set time interval e.g. 10s 2
  hours
• Or at set time intervals, record whether a
  behaviour is occurring

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Event Sampling

• Observe specific events
• May be infrequent
• Look at patterns of behaviour

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Types of Observation

• Participant or non-participant
• Disclosed (overt) or closed (covert)
• Structured or non-structured
• Controlled or naturalistic

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Operationally defined categoriesInter-observe
r (rater) reliability
(r 0.7 or more)

Person onesrating
Person twos rating
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Structured Observation

• Advantages
• Systematic
• Control of extraneous variables
• Easy to replicate
• Low observer bias

• Disadvantages
• Low ecological validity
• Not always possible, or ethical
• Behaviour might not be spontaneous or natural

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Naturalistic Observation

• Advantages
• Natural behaviour (particularly if participants
  unaware they are being observed)
• High ecological validity

• Disadvantages
• Poor control of extraneous variables
• Increased observer bias
• Low reliability
• Low replicability

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Participant Observation

• Advantages
• Access to previously inaccessible areas
• High ecological validity
• Very rich information
• Flexible

• Disadvantages
• Reliance on memory (cant always be seen to be
  taking notes)
• Emotional involvement
• Danger to researcher
• Researchers behaviour can alter that of the
  group
• Ethical problems

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Ethnography

• Any full or partial description of a group
  ethno (folk) and graphy (description)
• Involves gathering data from a range of sources
  e.g. interviews, observations, documents,
  diaries, art and conversations.

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Used by anthropologists I.e. researchers who
study groups of people e.g. Papua New Guinea,
Australian aboriginees
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Ethics BPS necessarily impose a strict set of
ethical criteria that researchers MUST adhere to.
The main areas are

• Protection
• Observational Research
• De-briefing
• Advice
• Colleagues

• General Criteria
• Consent
• Deception
• Withdrawal
• Confidentiality

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Ethics

• General criteria
• 1. Mutual Respect and Confidence
• 2. Researchers must share and promote good
  research practice
• 3. Take responsibility for own actions and accept
  legal ramifications should the rights or dignity
  of participants be infringed
• 4. From a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic
  viewpoint investigators must consider age, gender
  and social background and, any threats posed to
  participants in respect of, psychological
  well-being, health, values or dignity.

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Consent

• Wherever possible participants must be made aware
  of the full research parameters.
• Special care and safeguards must be put in place
  for children / adults with impairment
• Consent must be obtained for those under 16
  years. If this is not possible then consent must
  be obtained from the Ethics Committee

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Consent continued..

• Special care must be
• taken with detained
• individuals
• Researchers must be
• aware of their position
• of authority and not
• coerce participants

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Consent continued..

• Payment must not be used as such an inducement
• Repeated consent may be needed in longitudinal
  research

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Deception

• Withholding information or misleading
  participants is unacceptable if participants are
  likely to object or show unease once debriefed
• Participants should never be intentionally
  misled.
• If deception is unavoidable 3 criteria must be
  adhered to
• No other procedure/method available
• Participants informed at the earliest opportunity
• Consider / Consult on how withholding
  information will be received

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Other Factors

• Debriefing
• Withdrawal / Confidentiality
• Protection

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De-Briefing

• Participants must be supplied with additional
  information pertaining to the research.
• Debriefing does not justify any unethical
  deception
• Some effects which may be produced by an
  experiment will not be alleviated by a verbal
  description following the research.

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Withdrawal / Confidentiality

• Participants must be made aware of the right to
  withdraw at any time irrespective of any payment
  made

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Withdrawal cont.

• Participants must be made aware that they can
  withdraw retrospectively
• Confidentiality must be assured to participants
  unless otherwise agreed in advance, and, that
  there data will not be identifiable. If
  confidentiality / anonymity cannot be guaranteed
  then participants must be notified in advance
  (Data Protection Act)

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Protection

• Researchers have a responsibility to protect
  participants and risk must be no greater than in
  everyday life
• Participants must be asked about any pertaining
  risks e.g. pre-existing mental conditions
• Participants must have the right/means to contact
  the researcher should risks/harm be incurred at a
  later point
• Participants must be given the right to decline
  enquiries of a personal/sensitive nature
• Care must be exercised when discussing the
  results of children with parents/caregivers

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Observational Research/Advice

• Observational Research must only be conducted
  where behaviour would ordinarily be observed by
  the general public
• Additionally, particular account should be taken
  of local cultural values, and of the possibility
  of intruding upon the privacy of individuals, who
  even while in a normally public space, may
  believe they are unobserved.

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Observational Research/Advice cont

• Giving Advice If info is gained that may affect
  the participants future well being, the
  researcher must inform the participant
• If belatedly advice is sought by the participant
  and the researcher is not qualified to offer
  assistance, the researcher should offer
  assistance as to the appropriate professional
  source
• Advice may be given if it relates to the research
  and was pre-agreed at the outset

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Additional Ethical points concerned with covert
participant observation

• Involves deception
• May involve lack of consent (see notes)
• May be difficult to keep confidentiality and
  anonymity
• The researcher may have ethical dilemmas e.g. if
  law breaking is taking place. Do they report it,
  and break their cover, or go along with it?

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Colleagues

• Researchers have a shared
• obligation to ensure that
• ethical guidelines are
• adhered to. Should a doubt
• occur then researchers
• should encourage an
• investigator to revaluate
• their research.