Physical Media

1
Physical Media

• Twisted Pair (TP)
• two insulated copper wires
• Category 3 traditional phone wires, 10 Mbps
  ethernet
• Category 5 TP 100Mbps ethernet

• physical link transmitted data bit propagates
  across link
• guided media
• signals propagate in solid media copper, fiber
• unguided media
• signals propagate freely, e.g., radio

2
Physical Media coax, fiber

• Coaxial cable
• wire (signal carrier) within a wire (shield)
• baseband single channel on cable
• broadband multiple channel on cable
• bidirectional
• common use in 10Mbs Ethernet

• Fiber optic cable
• glass fiber carrying light pulses
• high-speed operation
• 100Mbps Ethernet
• high-speed point-to-point transmission (eg, 40
  Gps)
• very low error rate

3
Physical media Wireless

• Wireless link types
• microwave
• e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
• LAN (e.g., 802.11b/g)
• 11/54 Mbps
• wide-area (e.g., cellular)
• e.g. CDPD, 10s Kbps
• 3G 2.4 Mbps
• satellite
• up to 50Mbps channel
• multiple smaller channels
• 270 Msec end-end delay
• geosynchronous versus LEOS (low earth orbit)

• signal carried in electromagnetic spectrum
• no physical wire
• bidirectional
• propagation environment effects
• reflection
• obstruction by objects
• interference

4
The Data Link Layer

• Our goals
• understand principles behind data link layer
  services
• error detection, correction
• sharing a broadcast channel multiple access
• link layer addressing
• instantiation and implementation of various link
  layer technologies

• Overview
• link layer services
• error detection, correction
• multiple access protocols and LANs
• link layer addressing
• specific link layer technologies
• Ethernet

5
Link Layer setting the context
6
Recap The Hourglass Architecture of the Internet
Telnet
Email
FTP
WWW
TCP
UDP
IP
Ethernet
FDDI
Wireless
6
7
Link Layer setting the context

• two physically connected devices
• host-router, router-router, host-host
• unit of data frame

network link physical
data link protocol
M
frame
phys. link
adapter card
8
Link layer Context

• Data-link layer has responsibility of
  transferring datagram from one node to another
  node over a link
• Datagram transferred by different link protocols
  over different links, e.g.,
• Ethernet on first link,
• frame relay on intermediate links
• 802.11 on last link

• transportation analogy
• trip from New Haven to San Francisco
• taxi home to union station
• train union station to JFK
• plane JFK to San Francisco airport
• shuttle airport to hotel

9
Link Layer Services

• Framing, link access
• encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header,
  trailer
• implement channel access if shared medium,
• physical addresses used in frame headers to
  identify source, destination
• different from IP address!
• Reliable delivery between two physically
  connected devices
• seldom used on low bit error link
• E.g., fiber, twisted pair
• wireless links high error rates
• Q why both link-level and end-end reliability?

10
Link Layer Services (more)

• Flow Control
• pacing between sender and receivers
• Error Detection
• errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
• receiver detects presence of errors
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
• Error Correction
• receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s)
  without resorting to retransmission

11
Adaptors Communicating
datagram
receiving node
link layer protocol
sending node
adapter
adapter

• sending side
• encapsulates datagram in a frame
• adds error checking bits, rdt, flow control, etc.
• receiving side
• looks for errors, rdt, flow control, etc
• extracts datagram, passes to receiving node

• link layer implemented in adaptor (aka NIC)
• Ethernet card, modem, 802.11 card
• adapter is semi-autonomous, implementing link
  physical layers

12
Link Layer Implementation

• implemented in adapter
• e.g., PCMCIA card, Ethernet card
• typically includes RAM, DSP chips, host bus
  interface, and link interface

network link physical
data link protocol
M
frame
phys. link
adapter card
13
Error Detection

• EDC Error Detection and Correction bits
  (redundancy)
• D Data protected by error checking, may
  include header fields
• Error detection not 100 reliable! Q why?
• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and
  correction

14
Parity Checking
Single Bit Parity Detect single bit errors
Parity bit1 iff Number of 1s even
15
Internet checksum

• Goal detect errors (e.g., flipped bits) in
  transmitted segment (note used at transport
  layer only)

• Receiver
• compute checksum of received segment
• check if computed checksum equals checksum field
  value
• NO - error detected
• YES - no error detected.
• But maybe errors nonetheless?

• Sender
• treat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit
  integers
• checksum addition (1s complement sum) of
  segment contents
• sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum
  field

16
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Check

• view data bits, D, as a binary number
• choose r1 bit pattern (generator), G
• goal choose r CRC bits, R, such that
• ltD,Rgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
• receiver knows G, divides ltD,Rgt by G. If
  non-zero remainder error detected!
• can detect all burst errors less than r1 bits
• widely used in practice (ATM, HDCL)

17
CRC Example

• Want
• D.2r XOR R nG
• equivalently
• D.2r nG XOR R
• equivalently
• if we divide D.2r by G, want reminder R

D.2r G
R remainder
18
Example G(x)

• 16 bits CRC
• CRC-16 x16x15x21, CRC-CCITT x16x12x51
• both can catch
• all single or double bit errors
• all odd number of bit errors
• all burst errors of length 16 or less
• gt99.99 of the 17 or 18 bits burst errors

CRC-CCITT hardware implementation Using shift and
XOR registers
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC-32Implementation
19
Multiple Access Links and Protocols

• Three types of links
• point-to-point (single wire, e.g. PPP, SLIP)
• broadcast (shared wire or medium e.g, Ethernet,
  Wavelan, etc.)
• switched (e.g., switched Ethernet, ATM etc)

20
Multiple Access protocols

• single shared communication channel
• two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes
  interference
• only one node can send successfully at a time
• multiple access protocol
• distributed algorithm that determines how
  stations share channel, i.e., determine when
  station can transmit
• communication about channel sharing must use
  channel itself!
• what to look for in multiple access protocols
• synchronous or asynchronous
• information needed about other stations
• robustness (e.g., to channel errors)
• performance

21
Multiple Access protocols

• claim humans use multiple access protocols all
  the time
• class can "guess" multiple access protocols
• multiaccess protocol 1
• multiaccess protocol 2
• multiaccess protocol 3
• multiaccess protocol 4

22
MAC Protocols a taxonomy

• Three broad classes
• Channel Partitioning
• divide channel into smaller pieces (time slots,
  frequency)
• allocate piece to node for exclusive use
• Random Access
• allow collisions
• recover from collisions
• Taking turns
• tightly coordinate shared access to avoid
  collisions

Goal efficient, fair, simple, decentralized
23
MAC Protocols Measures

• Channel Rate R bps
• Efficient
• Single user Throughput R
• Fairness
• N users
• Min. user throughput R/N
• Decentralized
• Fault tolerance
• Simple

24
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA

• TDMA time division multiple access
• access to channel in "rounds"
• each station gets fixed length slot (length pkt
  trans time) in each round
• unused slots go idle
• example 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots
  2,5,6 idle
• TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) channel divided
  into N time slots, one per user inefficient with
  low duty cycle users and at light load.
• FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) frequency
  subdivided.

25
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA

• FDMA frequency division multiple access
• channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
• each station assigned fixed frequency band
• unused transmission time in frequency bands go
  idle
• example 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency
  bands 2,5,6 idle
• TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) channel divided
  into N time slots, one per user inefficient with
  low duty cycle users and at light load.
• FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) frequency
  subdivided.

time
frequency bands
26
TDMA FDMA Performance

• Channel Rate R bps
• Single user
• Throughput R/N
• Fairness
• Each user gets the same allocation
• Depends on maximum number of users
• Decentralized
• Requires resource division
• Simple

27
Channel Partitioning (CDMA)

• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
• unique code assigned to each user ie, code set
  partitioning
• used mostly in wireless broadcast channels
  (cellular, satellite, etc)
• all users share same frequency, but each user has
  own chipping sequence (ie, code) to encode data
• encoded signal (original data) X (chipping
  sequence)
• decoding inner-product of encoded signal and
  chipping sequence
• allows multiple users to coexist and transmit
  simultaneously with minimal interference (if
  codes are almost orthogonal)

28
CDMA - Basics

• Orthonormal codes
• ltci,cjgt 0 i?j
• ltci,cigt 1
• Encoding at user i
• Bit 1 send ci
• Bit 0 send -ci
• Decoding (at user i)
• Receive a vector ri
• Compute tltri,cigt
• If t1 THEN bit1
• If t-1 THEN bit0
• Correctness of decoding
• Single user
• Multiple users
• Assume additive channel.
• R c1 c2
• Output ltR,c1gt ltc1,c1gt lt-c2,c1gt 1 0 1

Q is there a benefit with orthogonal codes? In
practice use almost orthogonal
29
CDMA Encode/Decode
30
CDMA two-sender interference
31
Random Access protocols

• When node has packet to send
• transmit at full channel data rate R.
• no a priori coordination among nodes
• two or more transmitting nodes -gt collision,
• random access MAC protocol specifies
• how to detect collisions
• how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
  retransmissions)
• Examples of random access MAC protocols
• slotted ALOHA
• ALOHA
• CSMA and CSMA/CD

32
Slotted Aloha Norm Abramson

• time is divided into equal size slots ( pkt
  trans. time)
• node with new arriving pkt transmit at beginning
  of next slot
• if collision retransmit pkt in future slots with
  probability p, until successful.

Success (S), Collision (C), Empty (E) slots
33
Slotted Aloha efficiency

• Q what is max fraction slots successful?
• A Suppose N stations have packets to send
• each transmits in slot with probability p
• prob. successful transmission S is
• by single node S p (1-p)(N-1)
• by any of N nodes
• S Prob (only one transmits)
• N p (1-p)(N-1)
• choosing optimum p 1/N
• as N -gt infinity ...
• S 1/e .37 as N -gt infinity

34
Goodput vs. Offered Load

S throughput goodput (success rate)
1.5
0.5
1.0
2.0
G offered load Np

• when pN lt 1, as p (or N) increases
• probability of empty slots reduces
• probability of collision is still low, thus
  goodput increases
• when pN gt 1, as p (or N) increases,
• probability of empty slots does not reduce much,
  but
• probability of collision increases, thus goodput
  decreases
• goodput is optimal when pN 1

35
Maximum Efficiency vs. n
1/e 0.37
36
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA

• unslotted Aloha simpler, no synchronization
• pkt needs transmission
• send without awaiting for beginning of slot
• collision probability increases
• pkt sent at t0 collide with other pkts sent in
  t0-1, t01

37
Pure Aloha (cont.)

• P(success by given node) P(node transmits) .
• P(no
  other node transmits in t0-1,t0 .
• P(no
  other node transmits in t0,t01
• p .
  (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
• P(success by any of N nodes) N p . (1-p)N-1 .
  (1-p)N-1
• 
  choosing optimum p1/(2N-1)
• as N -gt infty ... S 1/(2e) .18

S throughput goodput (success rate)
38
Aloha Performance

• Channel Rate R bps
• Single user
• Throughput R !
• Fairness
• Multiple users
• Combined throughput only 0.37R
• Decentralized
• Slotted needs slot synchronization
• Simple

39
CSMA Carrier Sense Multiple Access

• CSMA listen before transmit
• If channel sensed idle transmit entire pkt
• If channel sensed busy, defer transmission
• Persistent CSMA retry immediately with
  probability p when channel becomes idle
• Non-persistent CSMA retry after random interval
• human analogy dont interrupt others!

40
CSMA collisions
spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet
collisions can occur propagation delay means
two nodes may not yet hear each others
transmission
collision entire packet transmission time wasted
note role of distance and propagation delay in
determining collision prob.
41
CSMA/CD Collision Detection
spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet
spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet
D
D
A
A
B
C
B
C
t0
t0
time
time
B detects collision, aborts
D detects collision, aborts
instead of wasting the whole packettransmission
time, abort after detection.
42
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

• CSMA/CD carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
• collisions detected within short time
• colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
  wastage
• persistent or non-persistent retransmission
• collision detection
• easy in wired LANs measure signal strengths,
  compare transmitted, received signals
• difficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off
  while transmitting
• human analogy the polite conversationalist

43
CSMA/CD collision detection
44
Efficiency of CSMA/CD

• Given collision detection, instead of wasting the
  whole packet transmission time (a slot), we waste
  only the time needed to detect collision.
• Use a contention slot of 2 T, where T is one-way
  propagation delay (why 2 T ?)
• When the transmission probability p is
  approximately optimal (p 1/N), we try
  approximately e times before each successful
  transmission

P packet size, e.g. 1000 bitsC link capacity,
e.g. 10Mbps
P/C
45
Efficiency of CSMA/CD

• The efficiency (the percentage of useful time) is
  approximately
• The value of a plays a fundamental role in the
  efficiency of CSMA/CD protocols.
• Question you want to increase the capacity of a
  link layer technology (e.g., , 10 Mbps Ethernet
  to 100 Mbps, but still want to maintain the same
  efficiency, what do you do?

46
CDMA/CD

• Channel Rate R bps
• Single user
• Throughput R
• Fairness
• Multiple users
• Depends on Detection Time
• Decentralized
• Completely
• Simple
• Needs collision detection hardware

47
Taking Turns MAC protocols

• channel partitioning MAC protocols
• share channel efficiently at high load
• inefficient at low load delay in channel access,
  1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active
  node!
• Random access MAC protocols
• efficient at low load single node can fully
  utilize channel
• high load collision overhead
• taking turns protocols
• look for best of both worlds!

48
Taking Turns MAC protocols

• Polling
• master node invites slave nodes to transmit in
  turn
• Request to Send, Clear to Send msgs
• concerns
• polling overhead
• latency
• single point of failure (master)

49
Reservation-based protocols

• Distributed Polling
• time divided into slots
• begins with N short reservation slots
• reservation slot time equal to channel end-end
  propagation delay
• station with message to send posts reservation
• reservation seen by all stations
• after reservation slots, message transmissions
  ordered by known priority

50
Summary of MAC protocols

• What do you do with a shared media?
• Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code
• Time Division,Code Division, Frequency Division
• Random partitioning (dynamic),
• ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
• carrier sensing easy in some technologies
  (wire), hard in others (wireless)
• CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
• Taking Turns
• polling from a central cite, token passing
• Popular in cellular 3G/4G networks where
• base station is the master

51
LAN technologies

• Data link layer so far
• services, error detection/correction, multiple
  access
• Next LAN technologies
• addressing
• Ethernet
• hubs, bridges, switches
• 802.11
• PPP
• ATM

52
LAN Addresses

• 32-bit IP address
• network-layer address
• used to get datagram to destination network
• LAN (or MAC or physical) address
• used to get datagram from one interface to
  another physically-connected interface (same
  network)
• 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the
  adapter ROM

53
LAN Addresses
Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
54
LAN Address (more)

• MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
• manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space
  (to assure uniqueness)
• Analogy
• (a) MAC address like ID number ?????
  ????
• (b) IP address like postal address
  ????? ??????
• MAC flat address gt portability
• can move LAN card from one LAN to another
• IP hierarchical address NOT portable
• depends on network to which one attaches
• ARP protocol translates IP address to MAC address

55
Comparison of IP address and MAC Address

• IP address is hierarchical for routing
  scalability
• IP address needs to be globally unique (if no
  NAT)
• IP address depends on IP network to which an
  interface is attached
• NOT portable

• MAC address is flat
• MAC address does not need to be globally unique,
  but the current assignment ensures uniqueness
• MAC address is assigned to a device
• portable

56
ARP Address Resolution Protocol

• Each IP node (Host, Router) on LAN has ARP table
• ARP Table IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN
  nodes
• lt IP address MAC address TTLgt
• TTL (Time To Live) time after which address
  mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)

yry3_at_cicada yry3 /sbin/arp Address
HWtype HWaddress Flags Mask
Iface zoo-gatew.cs.yale.edu ether
AA00040020D4 C
eth0 artemis.zoo.cs.yale.edu ether
00065B3F6E21 C
eth0 lab.zoo.cs.yale.edu ether
00B0D0F3C7A5 C
eth0 Try /proc/net/arp
57
ARP Protocol

• ARP is plug-and-play
• nodes create their ARP tables without
  intervention from net administrator
• A broadcast protocol
• A broadcasts query frame, containing queried IP
  address
• all machines on LAN receive ARP query
• destination D receives ARP frame, replies
• frame sent to As MAC address (unicast)

58
Ethernet

• dominant LAN technology
• cheap 5-10 for 10/100/1000 Mbs!
• first widely used LAN technology
• Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
• Kept up with speed race 1, 10, 100, 1000 Mbps

Metcalfes Etheret sketch
59
Ethernet Frame Structure

• Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or
  other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet
  frame
• Preamble
• 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
  byte with pattern 10101011
• used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

60
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)

• Addresses 6 bytes, frame is received by all
  adapters on a LAN and dropped if address does not
  match
• Type indicates the higher layer protocol
• mostly IP but others may be supported (such as
  Novell IPX and AppleTalk)
• CRC checked at receiver, if error is detected,
  the frame is simply dropped

61
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD

• A sense channel, if idle
• then
• transmit and monitor the channel
• If detect another transmission
• then
• abort and send jam signal
• update collisions
• delay as required by exponential backoff
  algorithm
• goto A
• else done with the frame set collisions to
  zero
• else wait until ongoing transmission is over and
  goto A

62
Ethernets CSMA/CD (more)

• Jam Signal make sure all other transmitters are
  aware of collision 48 bits
• Exponential Backoff
• Goal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated
  current load
• heavy load random wait will be longer
• first collision choose K from 0,1 delay is K
  x 512 bit transmission times
• after n-th collision choose K from 0,1,, 2n-1
• after ten or more collisions, choose K from
  0,1,2,3,4,,1023

63
Exponential Backoff (simplified)

• N users
• Interval of size 2n
• Prob Node/slot is 1/2n
• Prob of success N(1/2n)(1 1/2n)N-1
• Average slot success N(1 1/2n)N-1
• Intervals size 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
• Fraction (out of N) of success
• 2n N/8 -gt 0.03 2n N/4 -gt 2
• 2n N/2 -gt 15 2n N -gt 37
• 2n 2N -gt 60

64
Ethernet Technologies 10Base2

• 10 10Mbps 2 under 200 meters max cable length
• thin coaxial cable in a bus topology
• repeaters used to connect up to multiple segments
• repeater repeats bits it hears on one interface
  to its other interfaces physical layer device
  only!

65
10BaseT and 100BaseT

• 10/100 Mbps rate latter called fast ethernet
• T stands for Twisted Pair
• Hub to which nodes are connected by twisted pair,
  thus star topology (multi-port repeater)
• CSMA/CD implemented at hub

66
10BaseT and 100BaseT (more)

• Max distance from node to Hub is 100 meters
• Hub can disconnect jabbering adapter
• Hub can gather monitoring information, statistics
  for display to LAN administrators

67
Gbit Ethernet

• use standard Ethernet frame format
• allows for point-to-point links and shared
  broadcast channels
• in shared mode, CSMA/CD is used short distances
  between nodes to be efficient
• uses hubs, called here Buffered Distributors
• Full-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links
• Wide area networks

68
Token Rings (IEEE 802.5)

• A ring topology is a single unidirectional loop
  connecting a series of stations in sequence
• Each bit is stored and forwarded by each
  stations network interface

69
Token Ring IEEE802.5 standard

• 4 Mbps (also 16 Mbps)
• max token holding time 10 ms, limiting frame
  length

• SD, ED mark start, end of packet
• AC access control byte
• token bit value 0 means token can be seized,
  value 1 means data follows FC
• priority bits priority of packet
• reservation bits station can write these bits to
  prevent stations with lower priority packet from
  seizing token after token becomes free

70
Token Ring IEEE802.5 standard

• FC frame control used for monitoring and
  maintenance
• source, destination address 48 bit physical
  address, as in Ethernet
• data packet from network layer
• checksum CRC
• FS frame status set by dest., read by sender
• set to indicate destination up, frame copied OK
  from ring
• DLC-level ACKing