Grade 8 Earth and Space Sciences

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Grade 8 Earth and Space Sciences

• By Tia Stitt

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ESS 1.1.1. Question

• Identify and describe the processes involved in
  the water cycle and explain its effects on
  climatic patterns.

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ESS 1.1.1 Answer

• The water cycle consists of many processes. It
  first starts out in the process of evaporation,
  in which molecules at the surface of a liquid
  absorb enough energy to change into the gaseous
  state. When the water gets absorbed into the air
  it turns into water vapor. The further the gas
  goes into the atmosphere the more condensed it
  becomes. During condensation, a process by which
  a gas changes into a liquid, some of the vapor
  turns into clouds and the vapor that does not,
  turns into precipitation. The water is held in
  the clouds for a period of ten days. When this
  period is over precipitation happens forms of
  water such as snow, rain, hail, or freezing rain
  fall form the clouds to Earth. When it hits the
  Earth it usually runs down mountain sides as
  runoff, or gets stored in the ground as ground
  water and then gets put into bodies of water. The
  water cycle has no real beginning or end.

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ESS 1.1.1. Picture
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ESS 1.1.1. Definitions

• Evaporation- is the process by which molecules at
  the surface of a liquid absorb enough energy to
  change to the gaseous state.
• Condensation- is the process by which a gas, such
  as water vapor, changes into a liquid, such as
  water.
• Precipitation- forms of water such as snow, rail,
  hail and freezing rain.
• Snow- water vapor in a cloud converted directly
  into ice crystals
• Rain- the most common type of precipitation
• Hail- round pellets of ice larger than 5
  millimeters
• Freezing Rain- rain that freezes when it hits a
  cold surface

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ESS 1.1.2. Question

• Identify and describe the impact certain factors
  have on the Earths climate, including changes in
  the oceans temperatures, changes in the
  composition of the Earths atmosphere, and
  geological shifts due to events, such as a
  volcanic eruptions and glacial movements.

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ESS 1.1.2 Answer

• One factor could be El Niño. It changes the
  oceans temperatures and the climate on the
  coastal regions. Global warming and ozone
  depletion are causing the Earths temperature to
  rise immensely and UV rays are more easily let
  into the atmosphere. With the temperature rising,
  cold places are going to get warmer, but the
  glaciers and ice caps will melt causing sea
  level to go up and hurricanes to happen more
  frequently. With all of these things going on,
  if a volcanic eruption happens, the ashes would
  be carried up into the atmosphere and cause a
  blockage. When this happens the sun and heat
  cannot get though, thus causing maybe another ice
  age.

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ESS 1.1.2. Definitions

• El Niño- is every 2-7 years in the pacific ocean
  unusual wind patterns form over the western
  pacific vast sheets of warm water move eastward
  toward the South American coast.
• Global Warming- is a gradual increase in the
  temperature of Earths atmosphere.
• Ozone Depletion- the thinning of the ozone layer
  due to chemicals produced by humans.

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ESS 1.2.1 Question

• Describe the layers of the Earth, including the
  core, mantle, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
  atmosphere.

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ESS 1.2.1. Answer

• The many layers of the Earth include mantle,
  outer core, inner core, lithosphere,
  asthenosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and
  biosphere. The mantle is a layer of hot rock
  between five and 40 kilometers. The outer and
  inner cores are similar, but the outer surrounds
  the inner core and is molten metal the inner is
  a dense ball of solid metal. The lithosphere is
  the uppermost part of the mantle and crust
  together and the asthenosphere is a soft flowing
  material. The atmosphere has many different
  levels and is the outer most sphere mad of
  gasses. The biosphere is all the living things
  in the world and needs the hydrosphere, all water
  in the world, to survive.

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ESS 1.2.1. Picture
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ESS 1.2.2. Question

• Use geological evidence provided to support the
  idea that Earths crust/lithospheres composed of
  plates that move.

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ESS 1.2.2. Answer

• The theory of plate tectonics is proven true
  through many things like earthquakes, tsunamis
  and mountains. Earthquakes and tsunamis are
  caused by the Earths plate moving and colliding
  into each other causing movement in the ground.
  Mountains are created from the plates colliding
  and building up Earths surface.
• There are many different types of stress
  concerning the Earths crust and plates. There is
  shearing, which is the stress that pushes a mass
  of rock in two opposite directions, tension,
  which pulls on the crust stretching the rock so
  that it is thinner in the middle, and
  compression, which squeezes rock until it folds
  or breaks.
• There are many different faults too. They are
  strike-slip, the rocks on either side of the
  fault slip past each other sideways with a little
  up-or-down motion, normal, the fault is at an
  angle so one block lays below the other, and
  reverse faults, is the same structure as a normal
  fault but the blocks move in opposite directions.

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ESS 1.3.1. Question

• Explain how fossils found in sedimentary rock can
  be used to support the theories of Earths
  evolution over geologic time, and describe how
  the folding, breaking, and uplifting of the
  layers affects the evidence.

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ESS 1.3.1. Answer

• Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of
  living things. Fossils are found in sedimentary
  rock, is the type of rock made of hardened
  sediment. They can be used to support the
  theories of Earths evolution over geologic time
  because many plants and organisms that were once
  alive have been discovered. Depending on what was
  found, could say what the surface used to be like
  and what organisms where there.
• The folding, breaking and uplifting of layers
  affects fossils because without these actions
  happening, the fossils would not get exposed and
  we would never find them or know they were there.
  This would cause us to not be able to discover
  more about our planet.

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ESS 1.4.1. Question

• Describe how catastrophic changes that have taken
  place on the Earths surface can be revealed by
  satellite images.

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ESS 1.4.1. Answer

• Catastrophic changes that have taken place on the
  Earths surface can be revealed by many different
  types of satellite images. When the images are
  taken, they are transmitted to meteorologists on
  Earth who then interpret the information. You
  can see fronts, natural disasters, clouds and
  other things in these images they are used to
  predict the weather over weeks, days or even
  hours.
• The one of the many different types of images is
  a weather map. A weather map consists of fronts,
  type of precipitation, wind speed, cloud cover,
  pressure and temperature. Weather maps are used
  to predict weather or tell the current forecast.

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ESS 1.4.1. Definitions

• Front- an area where two air masses with
  different temperatures and densities collide
• Air mass- a huge body of air that has similar
  temperature, humidity and air pressure throughout
  it

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ESS 1.5.1. Question

• Explain that the Earths crust is divided into
  plates that move at extremely slow rates in
  response to movements in the mantle.

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ESS 1.5.1. Answer

• The Earths crust is divided into plates that
  move at a steadily slow rate due to the mantle.
  Scientists believe this is true because the
  mantle/asthenosphere is made up of a soft flowing
  material. The Earths plates/lithosphere float on
  top of the asthenoshpere convection currents
  rise and spread out beneath the surface thus
  causing the plates to move.
• There are many different Lithospheric plates the
  Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, Pacific
  Plate, Caribbean Plate, African Plate, Nazca
  Plate, South American Plate, Antarctic Plate and
  Indo-Australian Plate.

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ESS 1.5.1. Picture
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ESS 1.5.2. Question

• Explain how earth events, abruptly and over time,
  can bring about changes in Earths surface
  landforms, ocean floor, rock features, or climate.

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ESS 1.5.2. Answer

• Earth events can, abruptly and over time, bring
  changes about in the Earths surface. Faults,
  folding and earthquakes can build tons of
  different landforms or rock features, but it
  happens over time. On the ocean floor many
  things can happen if an earthquake happens, it
  will cause a tsunami which happens abruptly and
  there are underwater volcanoes. Many things can
  change the climate too, like El Niño and the
  switching of seasons. El Niño changes the oceans
  temperatures and the climate on the coastal
  regions and the switching of seasons brings the
  sun closer or further away and changes the
  temperatures.

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ESS 1.5.3. Question

• Explain the role of differential heating or
  convection in ocean currents, winds, weather and
  weather patterns, atmosphere or climate.

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ESS 1.5.3. Answer

• There is differential heating or convection in
  ocean currents, winds, weather and weather
  patterns, the atmosphere and climate. Ocean
  currents are caused by differential heating
  lighter, warmer material rises while heavier,
  cooler material sinks. It is this movement that
  creates circulation patterns known as convection
  currents in air, water and the mantle of the
  Earth. Winds are created by differential heating
  in the atmosphere as warm air rises allowing
  cooler air to flow underneath. Along with the
  turning of the Earth, this movement of air causes
  winds.

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ESS 1.6.1. Question

• Describe the process of the rock cycle.

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ESS 1.6.1. Answer

• The rock cycle is a series of processes on and
  beneath the Earths surface that slowly
  transforms rocks form one from type to another.
  To get to the igneous rock stage there must be
  volcanic activity. From there, there must be
  erosion to get to the sedimentary rock stage and
  heat and pressure to get to the metamorphic rock
  stage. From sedimentary rock you can get to
  metamorphic by heat and pressure. Metamorphic
  rock can transfer back into sedimentary rock by
  erosion. To get to molten material from all of
  the other stages, there must be melting.

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ESS 1.6.2. Question

• Explain that sedimentary, igneous, and
  metamorphic rocks contain evidence of the
  minerals, temperatures, and forces that created
  them.

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ESS 1.6.2. Answer

• Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks
  contain evidence of the minerals, temperatures,
  and forces that created them. Sedimentary rocks
  are created by sediments being pressured together
  in many different layers. The processes to get to
  that stage are erosion, deposition, compaction,
  and cementation. Igneous rocks are hardened
  pieces of magma or lava. Metamorphic rocks are
  any type of rock heated and pressured. To find
  out what type of minerals each rock is made of, a
  geologist looks under a telescope and can observe
  the shape and size of the crystals in the rock.
  Different temperatures create different rocks
  you can usually tell the temperature of when the
  rock was created by which category it fits under.

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ESS 1.6.2. Definitions

• Sediments- are small, solid pieces of material
  that come from rocks or living things.
• Erosion- occurs when running water or wind loosen
  and carry away the fragments of rock.
• Deposition- is the process by which sediment
  settles out of the water or wind carrying it.
• Compaction- is the process that presses sediments
  together.
• Cementation- is the process in which dissolved
  minerals crystallize and glue particles of
  sediment together.

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ESS 1.6.3. Question

• Explain how sediments of sand and smaller
  particles, which may contain the remains of
  organisms, are gradually buried and cemented
  together by dissolved minerals to form solid rock.

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ESS 1.6.3. Answer

• Sediments of sand and smaller particles are
  gradually buried and cemented together by
  dissolved minerals to form solid rock. To get the
  sediments, rocks have to be warn away causing
  fragments to be carried away. The sediments are
  gradually collected and compressed. During this
  process they get forced into the ground, thus
  burying them. Some, when buried, turn into
  fossils.

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ESS 1.6.4. Question

• Using data about a rocks physical
  characteristics make and support an inference
  about the rocks history and connection to the
  rock cycle.

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ESS 1.6.4. Answer

• There are many different ways to tell about a
  rocks history and where in the rock cycle they
  are. To figure out its history and category you
  collect and study samples. When studying a rock
  sample, geologists observe a rocks color and
  texture and determine its mineral composition.
  Color alone cannot classify a rock when
  discovering a rocks texture they look for grain
  size, grain shape, grain pattern, and some have
  no visible grain. To figure out the rocks
  connection to the rock cycle it must get
  classified under either igneous, sedimentary, or
  metamorphic.

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ESS 1.6.4. Definitions

• Texture- to a geologist, a rocks texture is its
  size, shape and pattern of the grains.
• Grains- particles of minerals or other rocks

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ESS 1.7.1 Question

• Describe how water flows into and through a
  watershed, falling on the land, collecting in
  rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of
  rock, until much of it flows back into the ocean.

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ESS 1.7.1. Answer

• A watershed is the land area that supplies water
  to a river system also called drainage basins.
  This is where a river and its tributaries
  collect their water.

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ESS 1.7.1. Picture
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ESS 1.7.2. Question

• Identify the physical and chemical properties
  that make water an essential component of the
  Earths system.

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ESS 1.7.2. Answer

• There are many physical and chemical properties
  that make water an essential component of the
  Earths system. Water is not just used for
  household purposes it is used for agriculture,
  industry, transportation, and recreation. Water
  is a odorless and tasteless liquid. Water is
  usually transparent, but when frozen has a tint
  of color to it. Since water is transparent,
  aquatic plants can get sun light.

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ESS 1.7.3. Question

• Explain the processes that cause cycling of water
  into and out of the atmosphere and their
  connections to our planets weather patterns.

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ESS 1.7.3. Answer

• The water cycle consists of many processes.
  Evaporation is the first, in which molecules at
  the surface of a liquid absorb enough energy to
  change into the gaseous state. Next is
  condensation, a process by which a gas changes
  into a liquid, some of the vapor turns into
  clouds and the vapor that does not precipitates.
  The last process is precipitation forms of water
  such as snow, rain, hail, or freezing rain fall
  form the clouds to Earth.

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ESS 2.1.1. Question

• Identify the characteristics of the sun and its
  position in the universe.

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ESS 2.1.1. Answer

• The sun has many different characteristics. The
  suns layers are the core, photosphere,
  chromosphere and corona. On the surface there are
  sunspots, prominence, and solar flares. The
  sunspots just seem to move across the surface,
  which makes it known that the sun rotates on its
  axis like the Earth. The sun gets its energy
  from nuclear fusion which only occurs under
  conditions of extremely high temperatures. The
  sun is in the middle of our galaxy giving light
  to all of the planets.

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ESS 2.1.1. Definitions

• Sunspots- are areas of gas on the sun that are
  cooler than the gasses around them.
• Prominence- is a huge looping mass of gas seen
  above the chromosphere.

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ESS 2.1.2. Question

• Recognize the relationships between the tides and
  the phases of the moon, and use tide charts and
  NOAA information to describe them.

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ESS 2.1.2. Answer

• The tides and the phases of the moon have a huge
  relationship. Tides mainly occur because of the
  differences in how much the moon pulls the Earth.
  Depending on where the moon is tells weather or
  not the tide is high or low. The tides change
  about every six hours. If the moon is full the
  tides are irregularly high and if the moon is new
  the tides are irregularly low.

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ESS 2.1.3. Question

• Recognize and describe how the regular and
  predictable motions of the Earth and Moon account
  for phenomena on Earth, including the day, the
  year, phases of the moon, shadows and eclipses.

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ESS 2.1.3. Answer

• Day and night occur when the Earth rotates and
  the moon is on the dark side of the Earth and the
  sun is on the light side. It takes 24 hours to
  complete this process and for a new year to start
  it takes 365 day of the Earth rotating and then
  making a revolution around the sun.
• During the phases of the moon the Earth only sees
  one side of the Earth. This is due to the moon
  revolving around the Earth in the same amount of
  time the moon takes to rotate on its axis.

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ESS 2.1.4. Question

• Explain the temporal or positional relationships
  between or among the Earth, Sun and Moon (e.g.,
  night/day, seasons, years, tides.)

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ESS 2.1.4. Answer

• Day and night occur when the Earth rotates and
  the moon is on the dark side of the Earth and the
  sun is on the light side. It takes 24 hours to
  complete this process. For a new year to start it
  takes 365 day of the Earth rotating and then
  making a revolution around the sun. Tides mainly
  occur because of the differences in how much the
  moon pulls the Earth.

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ESS 2.2.1. Question

• Describe the Sun as the principle energy source
  for phenomena on the Earths surface.

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ESS 2.2.1. Answer

• The sun is the principle energy source for
  phenomena on the Earths surface. All organisms
  need the Suns energy to survive and plants use
  the sun for photosynthesis to produce food. The
  energy comes to Earth in the forms of visible
  light and inferred radiation only a small amount
  is ultraviolet radiation which is very harmful.

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ESS 2.3.1. Question

• Identify the characteristics and movement
  patterns of the planets in out solar system and
  differentiate between them.

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ESS 2.3.1. Answer

• Mercury is the planet closest to the sun.
  Scientists only know what one side of Mercury
  looks like and it is just like the Earths moon
  Mercury also has a very thin atmosphere. Venus
  takes about 7.5 Earth months to revolve around
  the sun and is called Earths twin. The
  atmosphere on Venus is so thick that everyday is
  a cloudy one Venus is covered in rocks,
  volcanoes and craters. Mars has a tilted axis and
  therefore has seasons. The surface of Mars is
  covered with craters and volcanoes Marss
  atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide. Jupiter is
  the most massive planet and has a think
  atmosphere made up of mainly hydrogen and helium.
  There are 17 moons orbiting Jupiter. Saturn is
  the second largest planet and has rings. There
  are 5 moons orbiting Saturn. Uranus is twice the
  distance form the sun than Saturn is and rotates
  in 17 hours. The axis is in a 90 degrees tilt and
  there are 18 moons orbiting Uranus. Neptune is
  30 times Earths distance from the sun and has 8
  moons. The last planet is Pluto it has solid
  surfaces and masses much less than Earth. Pluto
  revolves around the sun once every 248 Earth
  years Pluto is not actually a planet, it is a
  dwarf planet.

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ESS 2.3.1. Distances
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ESS 2.3.1. Picture
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ESS 2.3.2. Question

• Explain the affects of gravitational force on the
  planets and their moons.

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ESS 2.3.2 Answer

• Gravitational force is the force of attraction
  between all masses in the universe. This causes
  tides and effects on the seasons and weather.
  Gravitational force also keeps the planets and
  their moons in orbit around the sun.

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ESS 2.3.3. Question

• Explain why Earth and our Solar System appear to
  be somewhat unique, while acknowledging recent
  evidence that suggests similar systems in the
  universe.

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ESS 2.3.3. Answer

• Earth and our Solar System are unique because
  there are most likely no other planets like them
  out in the universe. There might be planets with
  life, but not with the same atmosphere and
  climate as Earth. All of the other planets are
  special too. They have more moons and different,
  more unique conditions concerning climate,
  atmosphere and preserved organisms.

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ESS 2.3.4. Question

• Compare and contrast planets based on data
  provided about size, composition, location,
  orbital movement, atmosphere, or surface features.

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ESS 2.3.4. Answer

• Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are the inner
  planets are composed of rock and earthly
  materials. The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn,
  Uranus and Neptune they are the gas giants of
  the universe. Pluto is a dwarf planet. The
  planets atmospheres are either very thin, very
  thick or average like the Earth. Moons can very
  depending on which planet you talk about. The
  moons help to keep the planets in orbit around
  the sun.

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ESS 2.3.5. Question

• Explain how gravitational force affects objects
  in the Solar System.

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ESS 2.3.5. Answer

• Gravitational force affects many things in the
  Solar System. It keeps planets, moons, and
  satellites in orbit affecting tides and seasons.
  Gravitational force pulls on the Earth, thus
  causing high tide and low tide depending on where
  the moon is. By keeping satellites in orbit they
  can observe and take pictures of our Solar System
  and planets.

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ESS 2.4.1. Question

• Explain how technological advances have allowed
  scientists to re-evaluate or extend existing
  ideas about the Solar System

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ESS 2.4.1. Answer

• Many technological advances have allowed
  scientist to re-evaluate or extend ideas existing
  about the Solar System. The main technical
  advances have been in the telescopes and in the
  space program leading to more discoveries like
  life may have one point been on Mars and
  discovering that Pluto is a dwarf planet. More
  has been discovered about each planet including
  problems like global warming.

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ESS 3.1.1. Question

• Define an astronomical unit as the distance from
  the Earth to the Sun.

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ESS 3.1.1. Answer

• An astronomical unit is a unit of length used in
  measuring astronomical distances within the solar
  system equal to the mean distance from the Earth
  to the sun approximately 150 million kilometers
  (93 million miles).

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ESS 3.1.2. Question

• Explain that special units of measure, such as
  light years and astronomical units are used to
  calculate distances in space.

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ESS 3.1.2. Answer

• There are different and unusual measurements for
  distances in space. A light year is the distance
  that light travels in one year and is usually
  used to measure the distance to stars because a
  kilometer is so small. In space, light travels at
  a speed of 300,00 kilometers per second. An
  astronomical unit is used to measure the distance
  between planets or to other galaxies.

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ESS 3.2.1. Question

• Describe objects such as asteroids, comets and
  meteors in terms of their characteristics and
  movement patterns.

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ESS 3.2.1. Answer

• Asteroids are objects revolving around the sun
  that are to small and to numerous to be
  considered planets most revolve between the
  planets Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid
  belt. Comets are chunks of ice and dust whose
  orbits are usually very long, narrow ellipses a
  comets tail can stretch out millions of
  kilometers. A meteor is a streak of light in the
  sky caused by the burning of a meteoroid in
  Earths atmosphere there are many stages. The
  stages are meteoroid, meteor and meteorite.

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ESS 3.3.1. Question

• Describe the universe as being comprised of
  billions of galaxies, each containing many
  billions of stars, and explain that there are
  vast distances separating these galaxies and
  stars from one another, and from the Earth.

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ESS 3.3.1. Answer

• The universe is composed of billions of different
  galaxies each containing billions of stars and
  planets. There are light-years between the Milky
  Way and these other galaxies. Scientists discover
  and observe them from a far using telescopes.
  Many new ones are discovered each day.

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ESS 3.3.1. Picture
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ESS 4.1.1. Question

• Describe ways in which technology has increased
  our understanding of the world in which we live.

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ESS 4.1.1. Answer

• Technology has increased our understanding so
  much about this planet. Scientists have learned
  about the past life and the problems occurring
  now. Global warming can be stopped and we
  discovered that not to long ago. Each layer of
  the Earth is different and technology has helped
  teach us this along with new landforms and
  climate patterns.

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ESS 4.1.2. Question

• Recognize the importance of technology as it
  relates to science, for purposes such as access
  to space and other remote locations, sample
  collection and treatment, measurement, data
  collection, and storage, computation, and
  communication of information.

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ESS 4.1.2. Answer

• Technology relates to the important of science in
  so many ways. It is used for sample collection
  and treatment on rocks, core samples and other
  things. New locations are discovered everyday and
  we can communicate this to each other thought
  e-mail. Data can be collected and stored on
  computers for use later. Technology has
  transformed and helped in so many ways.

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ESS 4.2.1. Question

• Calculate temperature in degrees Celsius.

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ESS 4.2.1. Answer

• The United States is the only country to not use
  the metric system. To convert Fahrenheit into
  Celsius you mist complete the equation n-32
  multiply by 0.5555. To convert Celsius into
  Fahrenheit you must complete the equation n1.8
  add 32.

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ESS 4.2.2. Question

• Perform calculations using metric measurements

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ESS 4.2.2. Answer
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ESS 4.2.3. Question

• Describe how man uses land based light
  telescopes, radio telescopes, satellites, manned
  exploration, probes and robots to collect data.

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ESS 4.2.3. Answer

• Man uses land based light and radio telescopes to
  collect data on our Solar System, universe and
  other galaxies. Pictures are collected by
  satellites, probes and robots. During manned
  exploration you can find all kinds of different
  data.

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ESS 4.3.1. Question

• Provide examples of how creative thinking and
  economic need has shaped the way people use
  natural materials, such as the use of metal ores,
  petroleum, and fresh water.

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ESS 4.3.1. Answer

• Creative thinking and economic need has shaped
  the way people used natural materials. Petroleum
  is being over used now and is causing problems in
  our atmosphere soon it will disappear and we
  will not have any fuel. Fresh water is used for
  household purposes and other sources.

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ESS 4.3.2. Question

• Explain how to test natural materials to measure
  and compare their properties.

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ESS 4.3.2. Answer

• You can test natural materials to measure and
  compare their properties in many ways. You can
  check for their hardness, color, shape, texture,
  basically anything depending what the material
  is. You can do this by computer or telescope.

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ESS 4.3.3. Question

•    Explain how technologies can reduce the
  environmental impact of natural disasters.

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ESS 4.3.3. Answer

• Technologies can help reduce the impact of a
  natural disaster. With the new technology we
  have, we can predict a disaster earlier and
  therefore we can prepare for it. A weather map is
  able to see storms and fronts coming in a head of
  time and then they can be predicted on harsh they
  are going to be.

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ESS 4.3.4. Question

• Identify the potential impact of converting
  forested land to uses such as farms, homes,
  factories, or tourist attractions.

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ESS 4.3.4. Answer

• The impact of cutting down all forested land is
  destroying homes, the Earth and lives. By
  destroying forests all animals in them have no
  habitats and are becoming endangered humans are
  loosing oxygen and more carbon dioxide is being
  released into the air and atmosphere. Forests are
  being replaced by factories and other buildings
  which are destroying the atmosphere and
  environment because of all the fossil fuels they
  burn.

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ESS 4.4.1. Question

• Understand that some scientific jobs/careers
  involve the application of Earth Space science
  content knowledge and experience in specific ways
  that meet the goals of the job.

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ESS 4.4.1. Answer

• There are many jobs that involve the work and
  knowledge of Earth Space science. Some are
  oceanographers, geologists, astronomers,
  environmental scientists, and meteorologists.