Counseling: Art and Science

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Counseling Art and Science
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Art and Science

• It is not enough to connect with clients
• We are accountable
• We are limited in time
• Effectiveness is often subjective

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Why do you need a research course?

• To identify and define problems
• To formulate hypotheses
• To collect information
• To formulate conclusions
• To verify or reject ideas
• To be an intelligent consumer

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Research Methods

• Deductive
• Moving from general to specific
• Modern scientific method
• When done properly, results are generalizable
• Utilizes quantitative principles

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Research Methods

• Inductive
• Moves from specific to general
• Direct observations of a phenomena
• Only generalizable through evidence of many
  generalizations
• Often utilizes qualitative methodology

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Deductive Method

• Emphasis of this class
• Utilizes hypothesis testing
• Hypotheses are tested via a systematic and
  logical collection and analysis of data

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Limitations of Deductive Method

• No two persons are truly alike
• No one individual is completely consistent
• The research process may influence the outcome
• Behavioral sciences are inexact

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So why use the deductive method?

• We can identify trends
• We can identify differences
• We can make predictions

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Variables

• Discrete categorical
• e.g. sex, SES, ethnicity
• Continuous
• e.g. depression scale

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Two types of hypotheses

• Scientific
• Statement about what we think should happen in
  our study
• Statement about the variables that deter the
  study
• Statistical
• contains a null and an alternative hypothesis
• You accept one
• Lends credibility, provides evidence
• DOES NOT PROVE

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Statistical Research

• Null Hypothesis
• Alternative (research) hypothesis
• Ho µ1 µ2
• H1 µ1 ? µ2

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Types of Research

• Fundamental research
• Deductive method, less concerned with
  application, more common in physical sciences
• Applied research
• Purpose is to improve a product or process
• Describes most educational research

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Types of Research

• Action research
• The researcher is actively involved in the
  process
• Focus is on immediate application, not
  generalization
• Purpose is to improve practice

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Types of Research

• Descriptive research
• The gathering and analysis of empirical data in
  order to accurately describe a population
• Focus is on descriptive statistics
• Involves hypothesis testing, analysis, and
  generalization
• May be qualitative by focusing on the nature of a
  phenomena

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Types of Research

• Assessment
• Fact-findingexamines what exists
• No hypothesis testing
• Evaluation
• Application of findings
• Examination of utilization and effectiveness

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Types of Research

• Historical research
• Describes what was by investigating, recording,
  analyzing, and interpreting events
• Purpose is to identify previous trends of the
  past to understand what needs to happen in the
  present and future

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Types of Research

• Experimental research
• Attempts to identify group differences or
  relationships between or among variables
• Always involves manipulation of variables
• Quasi-experimental research
• Combines descriptive and experimental research
• There is no manipulation of a treatment

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Sampling

• COUN 695
• Experimental Design

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Principles of Sampling

• Procedures are different for quantitative and
  qualitative research
• Sampling in quantitative research focuses on
  representativeness
• Sampling in qualitative research focuses on the
  sample (or topic) of study
• The goal of quantitative research is
  generalizability
• The goal of qualitative research is transfer

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Sampling in Quantitative Research
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Population Validity

• The extent to which the results of an experiment
  can be generalized from the sample
• Representativeness
• Dependent upon
• Randomness
• Sample size

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Population Validity

• Reduces the chance of type I and type II error
• Increases statistical power
• Demonstrates a good faith approximation of the
  population

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Population Validity

• We will always have sampling error
• Generalizable results are still only an
  approximation of the population
• We demonstrate our sampling error by reporting
  measures of variability
• Range
• Variance
• Standard deviation

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Types of Populations

• Target population
• All members of a real or hypothetical set
• Saves time and money
• Studying a whole population is unrealistic
• High level of accuracy
• Accessible population
• All participants who could be realistically
  included

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Generalizability A two-step process

• Demonstrate that the sample in the study is
  representative to the accessible population
• Randomness
• Common characteristics
• Note any bias
• Demonstrate that the sample in the study is
  representative to the target population
• Determine similarities of the accessible
  population to the target population

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To show generalizability

• Clearly describe the population
• Define the sampling procedure in terms of type,
  size, and demographic data
• Identify any records that were accessed to obtain
  the data
• Completion rate, if possible

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Probability sampling

• Individuals are chosen by chance
• Four general types
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling

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Simple Random Sampling

• Participants in a population of a given size have
  an equal chance of being selected
• Independence selection of one participant has no
  effect on the selection of another participant
• The above characteristics define randomness

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Simple Random Sampling

• Randomness leads to generalizability, smaller
  amounts of error, and utility in inferential
  statistics
• Randomness can be assured through the use of
  random number tables or random number software.

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Systematic Sampling

• Mathematically subdivide the population
• Randomly select a number less than the number of
  subdivisions

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Systematic Sampling

• For example, if there are 2000 students in a high
  school, you divide the number of students by 50.
• You now have 40 students in 50 subdivisions.
• Randomly select equal or less than 40, such as
  26.
• Select the 26th person from each of the 50
  subdivisions.
• You now have a random sample of 50 participants.

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Stratified Sampling

• The goal is to represent subgroups of a
  population
• Proportional take in to account the proportion
  of a subgroup in the population
• Nonproportional focus on equal sample size in
  subgroups

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Cluster Sampling

• Random sample of groups, rather than a random
  sample of individuals
• Multi-stage cluster sampling randomly select the
  groups and then randomly select the participants
  within the clusters

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Convenience Sampling

• Non-probability sampling
• Common in social science research
• Why is it utilized?
• Location
• Administrative approval
• Familiarity
• Generalizability must be shown through the
  two-step process

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Determining Sample Size

• Power analysis
• Subgroup analysis
• Attrition
• Reliability of measures

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Whos your Daddy?
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The Daddies

• Population validity
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Randomness
• Independence

• A list of professional counselors was gathered
  from a data base. Using the last three digits on
  a column of a random numbers table, 300
  participants were selected.

• Whos your Daddy?

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The Daddies

• Population validity
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Randomness
• Independence

• You want 50 of your sample to be
  African-American.

• Whos your Daddy?

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The Daddies

• Population validity
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Randomness
• Independence

• Elements include randomness, representativeness,
  and sample size to show that a study can be
  generalized

• Whos your Daddy?

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The Daddies

• In order to study the relationship of religion to
  educational achievement, you randomly selected
  churches, synagogues, and mosques and from those
  selections randomly selected participants from
  the directories of the churches, synagogues, and
  mosques

• Population validity
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Randomness
• Independence

• Whos your Daddy?

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The Daddies

• Population validity
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Randomness
• Independence

• You randomly select from mathematically
  subdivided populations.

• Whos your Daddy?

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Sampling in Qualitative Research
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Purposeful Sampling

• Sample size is small
• Participants are information-rich resources
• Selection is deliberate
• Goal is to gain a deeper understanding of a
  phenomena

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Types of Purposeful Sampling

• Extreme or deviant case sampling
• Intensity sampling
• Typical case sampling
• Maximum variation sampling
• Stratified purposeful sampling
• Homogeneous sampling
• Critical case sampling
• Snowball or chain sampling

• Criterion sampling
• Theory-based or operational construct sampling
• Confirming and disconfirming case sampling
• Purposeful random sampling
• Sampling politically important cases
• Convenience sampling
• Opportunistic sampling