Developmental Landmarks in the First Year by Months

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Developmental Landmarks in the First Year by
Months

• First month Dim awareness of surroundings
• Second month Reacting to social stimulation
• Third month Active attention
• Fourth month The importance of the mouth
• Fifth month The neck becomes strong
• Sixth month Spontaneous talk
• Seventh month Vowel sounds
• Eighth month Sitting alone
• Ninth month Creeping and crawling
• Tenth month "Dada" and "mama"
• Eleventh month Stands alone
• Twelfth month Almost walking

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Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Oral-sensory
• Muscular-anal
• Locomotor-genital
• Latency
• Adolescence
• Adulthood
• Maturity

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Erikson's Oral-Sensory Stage

• Basic trust vs basic mistrustBirth to one year
• Social mistrust demonstrated via ease of feeding,
  depth of sleep, bowel relaxation
• Depends on consistency and sameness of experience
  provided by caretakeer
• Second six-months teething and biting moves
  infant "from getting to taking"
• Weaning leads to "nostalgia for lost paradise"
• If basic trust is strong, child maintains hopeful
  attitude

4
Erikson's Muscular-Anal Stage

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 1 year to 3 years
• Biologically includes learning to walk, feed
  self, talk
• Muscular maturation sets stage for "holding on
  and letting go"
• Need for outer control, firmness of caretaker
  prior to development of autonomy
• Shame occurs when child is overtly self-conscious
  via negative exposure
• Self-doubt can evolve if parents overly shame
  child, e.g. about elimination

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Erikson's Locomotor Genital Stage

• Initiative vs. Guilt3 to 5 years
• Initiative arises in relation to tasks for the
  sake of activity, both motor and intellectual
• Guilt may arise over goals contemplated
  (especially aggressive)
• Desire to mimic adult world involvement in
  oedipal struggle leads to resolution via social
  role identification.
• Sibling rivalry frequent

6
Erikson's Latency Stage

• 6 to 11 years
• Child is busy building, creating, and
  accomplishing
• Receives systematic instruction as well as
  fundamentals of technology
• Danger of sense of inadequacy and inferiority if
  child despairs of his tools/skills and status
  among peers
• Socially decisive age

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Erikson's Adolescent Stage

• 11 years and through end of adolescence
• Struggle to develop ego identity (sense of inner
  sameness and continuity)
• Preoccupation with appearance, hero worship and
  ideology
• Group identity (peers) develops
• Danger of role confusion, doubts about sexual and
  vocational identity
• Psychosocial moratorium, a stage between morality
  learned by the child and the ethics to be
  developed by the adult

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Freud's Theory of Child Development

• Oral phase Anal phase Phallic phase Latency
  phase Genital phase

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Freud's Oral Phase

• The oral phase begins at birth and lasts eight
  months. It is characterized by the infant's
  concern for his mouth and gratification he feels
  from oral stimuli. The most obvious oral activity
  the child derives pleasure from is eating.
• Oral stimulation, however, is also produced by
  engaging in such activities as sucking, biting,
  swallowing and manipulating various parts of the
  mouth.
• Freud contended that these activities are the
  child's means of fulfilling his sexual urges.
  Hence, Eros (the life instinct) makes its
  appearance. But Thanatos (the death instinct) is
  also seen since quite frequently children destroy
  objects they come in contact with, often by
  biting them.
• During this phase, the child's personality is
  controlled by the id. He demands immediate
  gratification of his wants.

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Freuds Anal Phase

• The anal stage of motivational development is
  characterized by the child's central area of
  bodily concern in the rectum.
• Bowel movements become a source of pleasure to
  the child. He may defecate often to achieve this
  pleasure.
• This, however, would bring him into conflict with
  his parents. The conflict leads the child to
  develop an ego.
• He comes to realize that he cannot always do what
  he wants when he wants. He learns that there are
  certain times when it appropriate to expel waste
  and other times when it is inappropriate.
• He gradually comes to understand his mother's
  wishes and abides by them.

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Freud's Phallic Phase

• The child's central interest shifts to the
  genital region. Two years--age six. Sexual
  gratification becomes more erotic during this
  time as evidenced by the child's masturbation
  actual manipulation of the genitals.
• It is during this stage that the phallus acquires
  a special significance. Freud believed that the
  increased awareness in the male of his sexual
  organs leads him to subconsciously desire his
  mother. In addition, the male child grows envious
  and resentful of his father and wishes to replace
  him as the object of his mother's love. The
  situation is called the Oedipus Complex.
• Similarly, a female undergoes a complex wherein
  she desires her father and rivals with her mother
  for her father's affections. This is called the
  Electra Complex. This complex involves penis envy
  on the part of the female child. She believes
  that she once had a penis but that it was
  removed. In order to compensate for its loss,
  Freud believed the girl wants to have a child by
  her father.
• Eventually, however, both the boy and the girl
  pass through these complexes. Once this happens,
  they begin to identify with the parent of their
  own sex.

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Freuds Latency Phase

• The period of latency is characterized by
  indifference to sexually related matters. During
  this time, the child's identification with the
  parent of his own sex becomes stronger. The child
  imitates his or her behavior -- speech, gestures,
  mannerisms, as well as beliefs and value systems.
  
• The child also incorporates more and more of the
  beliefs and values of his culture. Thus, the
  super-ego is developing to a greater extent. The
  child comes to distinguish between acceptable and
  unacceptable behavior in his society.
• The period of latency is also marked by the fact
  that children seek associations ( or playmates)
  of their own sex. Boys prefer the company of boys
  and consciously avoid girls. Girls prefer contact
  with other girls and avoid boys.
• This period of sexual latency lasts five years,
  from ages six to eleven.

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Freud's Genital Phase

• The genital phase is the longest of the five
  stages. It lasts seven years from ages eleven to
  eighteen. This period is similar to the anal
  stage. There is a renewed interest and pleasure
  derived from excretory activity. In addition,
  masturbation takes place and is engaged in much
  more frequently at this time than during the anal
  stage.
• In the beginning of the genital phase, the person
  seeks associations with members of his own sex
  just as in the latency period. But the
  associations are stronger in the genital phase
  and Freud believed that they are homosexual in
  nature, even though homosexual activity may not
  take place.
• As this period progresses, however, the
  homosexual tendencies are supplanted by
  heterosexual ones and toward the latter part of
  this phase, the child makes contact and forms
  relationships with members of the opposite sex.
• The child adopts rules in the most literal sense.
  The individual realizes that some rules are less
  vital than others. Consequently, his behavior
  will reflect this. He accepts some rules or norms
  and makes exceptions to others.

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Piagets Developmental Structure

• Sensorimotor (0-2 years) intelligence takes the
  form of motor actions.
• Preoperational (3-7 years) intelligence is
  intuitive in nature.
• Concrete operational stage (8-11 years)
  intelligence is logical but depends upon concrete
  referents.
• Formal operational stage (12-15 years)
  intelligence involves abstractions

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Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

• Infants are busy discovering relationships
  between their bodies and the environment.
• The child relies on seeing, touching, sucking,
  feeling, and using their senses to learn things
  about themselves and the environment.
• Infants realize that an object can be moved by a
  hand (concept of causality), and develop notions
  of displacement and events.
• An important discovery is the concept of object
  permanence.
• Object permanence is the awareness that an object
  continues to exist even when it is not in view.
  In young infants, when a toy is covered by a
  piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and
  appears to lose interest in the toy see figure
  above). This child has not yet mastered the
  concept of object permanence. In older infants,
  when a toy is covered the child will actively
  search for the object, realizing that the object
  continues to exist.

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Preoperational Stage

• Involves ability to deal with world on symbolic
  and representational level.
• Can imagine doing something rather than the doing
  of it
• Develops mental representation of objects.
• One of the major accomplishments during this
  period is the development of language, the
  ability to think and communicate by using words
  that represent objects and events.

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Concrete Operational Stage

• During this stage, the child begins to reason
  logically and organize thoughts coherently.
  However, they can only think about actual
  physical objects, they cannot handle abstract
  reasoning.
• This stage is also characterized by a loss of
  egocentric thinking.
• During this stage, the child has the ability to
  master most types of conservation experiments and
  begins to understand reversibility.
• Also characterized by the child's ability to
  coordinate two dimensions of an object
  simultaneously, arrange structures in sequence
  and transpose differences between items in a
  series

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Formal Operational Stage

• Characterized by the ability to formulate
  hypotheses and systematically test them to arrive
  at an answer to a problem.
• The individual is also able to think abstractly
  and to understand the form or structure of a
  mathematical problem.
• Another characteristic is the ability to reason
  contrary to fact. That is, if they are given a
  statement and asked to use it as the basis of an
  argument they are capable of accomplishing the
  task.
• For example, they can deal with the statement
  "what would happen if snow were black".

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B.F. Skinner Behavior Modification

• Operant conditioning  The organism is in the
  process of operating on the environment, which
  in ordinary terms means it is bouncing around it
  world, doing what it does. 
• During this operating, the organism encounters
  a special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing
  stimulus, or simply a reinforcer. 
• This special stimulus has the effect of
  increasing the operant -- that is, the behavior
  occurring just before the reinforcer. 
• This is operant conditioning The behavior is
  followed by a consequence and the nature of the
  consequence modifies the organisms tendency to
  repeat the behavior in the future.

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Sociological Theories

• Structural Functionalism
• Feminist Theory
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Conflict Theory

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Structural Functionalism

• Observes the ways in which the various elements
  of society are interdependent and explains this
  interdependence in terms of evolutionary theory.
  It accounts for a social activity by referring to
  its consequences for the operation of some other
  social activity, institution or society as a
  whole.
• A social activity or institution by have latent
  functions for some other activity. A social
  activity may contribute to the maintenance of the
  stability of a social system. A social activity
  may contribute to the satisfying of basic social
  needs or functional prerequisites.
• Emphasizes the consensus of society seeing shared
  norms and values as fundamental to society with a
  focus on social order based on tacit agreements.
• Views social change as occurring in a slow and
  orderly fashion.

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More Structural Functionalism

• Functionalism maintains that society is held
  together primarily by a general consensus over
  the major values and norms in the society. People
  tend to obey the rules because through a long
  socialization process they have come to accept
  these rules, so for the most part they live by
  them.
• Focuses on the interaction between the actor and
  the world views both the actor and the world as
  dynamic processes and not static structures and,
  attributes great importance to the actor's
  ability to interpret the social world.
• This view conceives of the individuals themselves
  as existentially free agents who accept, reject,
  modify or otherwise define the community's norms,
  roles beliefs and so forth, according to their
  own personal interests and plans of the moment.

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Even More Structural Functionalism

• Manifest functions, those intended by the
  participants in a social activity, are sometimes
  less important than latent functions, the
  unintentional consequences of a social act.
• To look for the dysfunctional aspects of social
  behavior means focusing on features of social
  life that challenge the existing order of things.
  
• To study the function of a social activity is to
  analyze the contribution that that activity makes
  to the continuation of the society as a whole

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Feminist Theory

• Looks at the world from the vantage points of a
  hitherto unrecognized and invisible minority,
  women, with an eye to discovering the significant
  but unacknowledged ways in which the activities
  of womensubordinated by gender and variously
  affected by other stratificational practices,
  such as class, race, age, enforced
  heterosexuality and geosocial inequalityhelp
  create our world.
• Attempts to understand and explain the
  subordinate position of women in society by
  reference to gender differences and specifically
  in terms of a theory of patriarchy.

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More Feminist Theory

• Feminist Theory is a critique of patriarchal
  forms of hegemony.
• Feminist theories argue that women's lives and
  their experiences are central to the study of
  society. Driven by a concern with women's
  subordination in American society, feminist
  theory highlights gender relations and gender
  inequality as an important determinant of social
  life in terms of both social interaction and
  social institutions.
• Feminist theory emphasizes gendered patterns and
  gendered inequalities are not natural but are
  socially constructed.

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Symbolic Interactionism

• Is the study of the self-society relationship as
  a process of symbolic communications between
  social actors. This is an exchange of gestures
  that involves the use of symbols.
• Symbolic interactionism stresses the exchange of
  symbols between individuals in social
  interaction. Unlike other theories, symbolic
  interactionism emphasizes the small-scale
  interactions of an individual, not society as a
  whole.
• Based on three assumptions
• Communication occurs through the creation of
  shared significant symbols,
• The self is constructed through communication,
  and
• Social activity becomes possible through the
  role-taking process.

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More Symbolic Interaction

• Symbolic interactionism directs our attention to
  the detail of interpersonal interaction and how
  that detail is used to make sense of what others
  say and do.
• Social interaction requires numerous forms of
  nonverbal communication-the exchange of
  information and meaning through facial
  expressions, gestures, and movements of the body.
  
• Nonverbal communication is sometimes referred to
  as "body language," but this is misleading,
  because we characteristically use such nonverbal
  cues to eliminate or expand on what is said with
  words.

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Even More Symbolic Interaction

• You can get a basic grasp of this theory by
  learning its keywords and how they fit together.
• I -- the active portion of the self capable of
  performing behaviors.
• Me -- the socially reflective portion of the
  self, providing social control for the actions of
  the I.
• Self -- the combination of the I and the Me. Self
  is a process, not a structure. The I acts and the
  me defines the self as reflective of others.
• Self-indication -- experience and feedback as the
  I acts and the Me observes the I from the role of
  the Other. The Me then gives direction regarding
  future action to the I.
• Generalized Other -- the typical members of a
  society or culture.
• Specific Other -- the idea of a specific person
  outside the Self.

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Even, Even More Symbolic Interaction

• Role Taking -- putting oneself in the place of
  another, or waling in someone else's shoes. We
  learn to Role Take by Play and Games.
• Play -- activity where a child is both the self
  and an other, without recognizing the self. The
  child plays both roles without recognizing the
  self in either role.
• Game -- interaction where the child has the
  attitude of all the others involved in the game.
  The child is the self but can recognize the
  other's perspectives. Thus, behavior is not a
  response but an interpretive process. The
  individual can comprehend the self only through
  interaction with other people.
• Gesture (nonsymbolic) Interaction -- an impulsive
  and spontaneous action in the sense of a reflex
  response (e.g., pulling your hand away quickly
  when after it touches something hot).
• Symbolic Interaction -- an interpretation of a
  symbol.
• Symbol -- the representation of one thing for
  another thing.
• Significant Symbol -- a symbol that has shared
  meaning (e.g., the words in a language).
• Mind -- a social, behavioral process in which the
  human being is capable of acting toward and even
  creating his or her environment, or objects in
  the environment.

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Conflict Theory

• Oriented toward the study of social structures
  and institutions. Conflict theorists see whatever
  order there is in society as stemming from the
  coercion of some members by those at the top.
• Maintains that society is held together in the
  face of conflicting interests because either (a)
  one group in the society has the power to enforce
  the rules (and thus make subordinate groups
  follow rules that may primarily serve the
  interests of the superordinate group) or (b)
  there are so many overlapping and divided
  interest groups that individuals must learn to
  cooperate.
• The overall argument made by conflict theorists,
  however, is that through the structure of
  conflict in society, order can be maintained in
  one of these two ways.

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More Conflict Theory

• Social conflict assumes various forms.
  Competition describes a conflict over the control
  of resources or advantages desired by others
  where actual physical violence is not employed.
• Regulated competition is the sort of peaceful
  conflict which is resolved within a framework of
  agreed rules.
• Markets involve competition, both regulated and
  unregulated. Other conflicts may be more violent
  and not bound by rules, in which case they are
  settled by the parties mobilizing their power
  resources.