C. Candace Chou

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Instructional DesignTheories, History Models

• C. Candace Chou
• Learning Technology Certificate/MA Program
• Department Curriculum and Instruction
• University of St. Thomas
• ccchou_at_stthomas.edu

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Benefits of Instructional Design

• Business
• tangible e.g., increased output, ROI
• intangible e.g., worker loyalty
• Education
• activity-oriented, project-based,
  student-centered instruction
• promote active learning

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What is a Teacher?

• Advocate
• Evaluator
• Learner
• Organizer
• Collaborator
• Model
• Artist
• Instructional Designer

• Counselor
• Coach
• Motivator
• Judge
• Referee
• Nurse
• Confidant
• Listener

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Instructional System Design

• Instruction is a systematic process that involves
  teacher, learners, materials, and learning
  environment in order to achieve successful and
  identified learning goals.
• The system refers to an orderly, logical method
  of identifying, developing, and evaluating a set
  of strategies aimed at attaining a particular
  instructional goal (Morrison, Ross, Kemp, 2004)

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• An instructional system is an arrangement of
  resources and procedures to promote learning.
• Design implies a systematic or intensive planning
  and ideation process prior to the development of
  something or the execution of some plan in order
  to solve a problem.
• Instructional System Design is used
  interchangeably with Instructional Design
• ISD is a systems approach for the design,
  development, implementation, and evaluation of
  instruction.

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• Training refer to those instructional experiences
  that are focused upon individuals acquiring very
  specific skills that they will normally apply
  almost immediately.
• Teaching refer to those learning experiences that
  are facilitated by a human being - not a
  videotape, textbook, or computer program, but a
  live teacher.

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ID Definition

• Instructional design refers to the systematic and
  reflective process of translating principles of
  learning and instruction into plans for
  instructional materials, activities, information
  resources, and evaluation. (Smith and Ragan, 1999)

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Definition I

• Instruction Design as a Process
• Instructional Design is the systematic
  development of instructional specifications using
  learning and instructional theory to ensure the
  quality of instruction. It is the entire process
  of analysis of learning needs and goals and the
  development of a delivery system to meet those
  needs. It includes development of instructional
  materials and activities and tryout and
  evaluation of all instruction and learner
  activities.

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Definition II

• Instructional Design as a Discipline
• Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge
  concerned with research and theory about
  instructional strategies and the process for
  developing and implementing those strategies.

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Definition III

• Instructional Design as a Science
• Instructional Design is the science of creating
  detailed specifications for the development,
  implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of
  situations that facilitate the learning of both
  large and small units of subject matter at all
  levels of complexity.

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Definitions IV

• Instructional Design as Reality
• Instructional Design can start at any point in
  the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is
  developed to give the core of an instruction
  situation. By the time the entire process is done
  the designer looks back and she or he checks to
  see that all parts of the science have been
  taken into account. Then the entire process is
  written up as if it occurred in a systematic
  fashion.

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Whos Who in Instructional Design Process

• Project manager
• Instructional Designer
• Instructor/Trainer/Facilitator
• Subject-matter Expert (SME)
• Programmer/Developer
• Graphic Artist/Designer
• Evaluator

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History of Instructional Design I

• The origins World War II
• Psychologists and educators were called to
  develop training materials for the military
  services.
• Early Development The Programmed Instruction
  Movement, mid-1950s
• Skinner (1958) introduced ideas on increasing
  human learning and the characteristics of
  effective instructional materials, called
  programmed instructional materials
• Present instruction in small steps, require
  active responses to frequent questions, immediate
  feedback

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History of Instructional Design II

• The Popularization of Behavioral Objectives
• Rober Mager (1962) emphasized on objectives for
  desired learner behaviors
• Blooms (1956) taxonomy employed hierarchical
  relationship among various types of outcomes
• Robert Gagne (1962) Events of Instruction,
  Hierarchical analysis, Domains of learning
  (psychomotor skills, verbal information,
  intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and
  attitudes)

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History of Instructional Design II

• 1970s Leslie Briggs demonstrated that an
  instructionally designed course could produce up
  to 21 increase over conventionally designed
  class in terms of achievement, reduction in
  variance, and reduction of completion time, save
  in salary cost.
• 1980s increased use of microcomputer has a major
  effect on ID practices, computer-based
  instruction, drill and practice
• 1990s, constructivism, problem-solving and
  collaboration, social-cultural issues, and rapid
  prototyping

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Learning Theories the Implications for ID

• Behaviorism Behavioral theory emphasized the
  influence of the environment on learning.
  According to behaviorism, learning has occurred
  when learners evidence the appropriate response
  to a particular stimulus, e.g., Pavlovs
  classical condition.
• ID example drill and practice. Memorization for
  basic information

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Cognitive Learning Theories Gagne Principles of
Instruction

• Translate behaviorist and information -processing
  theories into instructional strategies
• Types of learning
• Intellectual skills (problem solving,
  higher-order thinking, defined concepts, concrete
  concepts, discriminations)
• Cognitive strategies
• Verbal information
• Motor skills
• Attitudes

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Gagné Events of Instruction

• Gain attention
• Informing the learner of the objectives
• Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
• Presenting new materials
• Providing learning guidance
• Eliciting performance
• Providing feedback about correctness
• Assessing performance
• Enhancing retention and recall

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Gagné (continued)

• Learning hierarchies Learning is a building
  process that the lower-level skills provide the
  foundation for higher-level skills.
• Math example to work with long division problems
  requires the prerequisite math skills in number
  recognition, number facts, simple addition and
  subtraction, multiplication, and simple division.
• ID examples drills, tutorials, simulation

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Constructivism

• Learning is always a unique product constructed
  as each individual learner combines new
  information with existing knowledge and
  experiences. Individuals have learned when they
  have constructed new interpretations of the
  social, cultural, physical, and intellectual
  environments in which they live. (Dick Carey,
  2001)
• ID examples problem-solving, project-based
  learning

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Morrison, Ross, Kemp Model
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ID Model ADDIE

• Analysis
• Design
• Development
• Implementation
• Evaluation

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The Analysis Phase

• Who is the audience?
• What do they need to learn?
• What is the budget?
• What are the delivery options?
• What constraints exist?
• When is the project due?
• What will the students do to determine competency
  (Powers, 1997)?

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The Design Phase

• Select the most appropriate Web-based environment
  by examining the kinds of cognitive skills
  required to achieve your goal (Driscoll, 1998, p.
  50)
• Write the instructional objectives select an
  overall approach and the programs look and feel
  outline units, lessons, and modules (Hall, 1997)
• Design course content specifically for use with
  an interactive, electronic medium (Porter, 1997)

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The Design Phase II

• What are your objectives?
• What skills, knowledge and attitudes are you
  trying to develop?
• What resources and strategies will you use in
  your instruction?
• How will you structure the content of your
  learning materials?
• How will you assess the learners understanding
  and whether or not they have met the objectives
  of the instruction?
• (http//et.sdsu.edu/wschutt/addie/addieindex.htm )

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The Development Phase

• Obtain and/or create the required media.
• Use the Internet's strength to present
  information in many different multimedia formats
  so that the learners' preferences can be met
  (Porter, 1997, p. 196).
• Determine the appropriate interactions.  They
  should be creative, innovative, and encourage
  learners to explore further (Porter, 1997, p.
  200).
• Plan activities that allow for student group work
  to help construct a supportive social environment
  (Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).

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The Implementation Phase

• Duplicate and distribute materials.
• Install and maintain the course.
• Be prepared in the event that technical problems
  occur and discuss alternative plans with the
  students ahead of time (Simonson et al, 2000, p.
  115).

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The Evaluation Phase

• Test for instructional standards.
• Plan several points during the course when
  students can provide anonymous feedback so that
  the instructor is aware of student confusion and
  misunderstanding (Schrum, 1998).
• Conduct formative evaluations to improve the
  course and summative evaluations to judge the
  effect of the course (Bourne et al, 1997).
• http//distance-ed.fullerton.edu/pages/faculty_sta
  ff/online_guide/guide24.htm

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Needs Assessment

• Define problems
• Target population
• Task Content
• Job analysis
• SME role (Subject Matter Expert)

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Tasks

• A task is an action designed to contribute a
  specified end result to the accomplishment of an
  objective. It has an identifiable beginning and
  end that is measurable component of the duties
  and responsibilities of a specific job. A task
  statement has an action and a result (product)
• For example
• Adjust gears on a 10 speed bikePrint a Microsoft
  World document on Windows XP

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SME vs Trainers

• SME are responsible on how tasks, to include the
  order of performance steps, are to be performed,
  while trainers are responsible on how that
  material will be presented (demonstrate -
  practice - hands-on test).
• SME are responsible on technical-jargon, while
  trainers decide if that jargon needs to be
  explained (unless the jargon is offensive).
• SME are responsible what is acceptable
  performance, while trainers decide how that
  performance will be evaluated (written, hand-on,
  oral).
• SME are responsible for providing the performance
  objectives, while trainers are responsible for
  turning the objectives into a viable learning or
  performance objectives (task - observable action,
  conditions, standards - at least one measurable
  criterion).

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Exercise 1

• Discuss in small groups, in how many different
  ways do people learn. Try to come up as many
  verbs as possible, to end the sentence
• People learn by...