Instructional Technology

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Instructional Technology

• Psychological Foundations, Learning Environments,
  Learner Motivation, Philosophical Beliefs
• Mary Ann Larsen
• Fall 2005

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Content

• Psychological Foundations
• Learning Environments
• Learner Motivation
• Philosophical Beliefs

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Psychological Foundations
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Behaviorism

• Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human
  learning that only focuses on objectively
  observable behaviors and discounts mental
  activities. Behavior theorists define learning as
  nothing more than the acquisition of new
  behavior.
• Behaviorism (Definition, Discussion, and Impact)
  http//www.funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm

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There are two different types of conditioning,
each yielding a different behavioral pattern

• Classic conditioning occurs
• when a
• natural
• reflex
• responds to a stimulus.

• Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs
• when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.

Pavlov, Ivan (Classical Conditioning)http//www.p
sy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Pavlov.htm
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Cognition

• Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study
  of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy,
  psychology, artificial intelligence,
  neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy c/o Paul
  Thagard, 2002, paragraph 1, http//plato.stanford.
  edu/entries/cognitive-science/

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Cognitive Psychology Emerged

• The modern development of cognitive psychology
  was due to the WWII focus on research on human
  performance and attention, developments in
  computer science, especially those in artificial
  intelligence, and the renewal of interest in the
  field of linguistics.
• How Cognitive Psychology Developed
• http//www.uwinnipeg.ca/7Eepritch1/amdvlop.htm

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Cognition and Scripts

• The notion of scripts could be used in order to
  make computers understand the way humans actually
  talk. If a computer was provided with a number of
  scripts, it could then infer the things that are
  omitted in everyday conversation because everyone
  knows about them.

Cognitive Science in Pieces http//lucs.fil.lu.s
e/People/David.de.Leon/Papers/Pieces.html
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Cognitive Information Processing

• The basic CIP model is concerned with fundamental
  mental operations, mainly how we perceive and
  remember events and information.
• Three basic components of memory are proposed
  the sensory register, short-term or working
  memory, and long-term memory.
• The meaning we assign to sensory impressions
  depends on both our background knowledge and the
  context in which we experience something. As
  we've all experienced, our attention can be very
  selective.
• Cognitive Information Processing (David Perry)
  http//education.indiana.edu/7Ep540/webcourse/ci
  p.html

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Concept Mapping

• To structure large bodies of knowledge requires
  an orderly sequence of iterations between working
  memory and long-term memory as new knowledge is
  being received.
• We believe one of the reasons concept mapping is
  so powerful for the facilitation of meaningful
  learning is that it serves as a kind of template
  to help to organize knowledge and to structure
  it, even though the structure must be built up
  piece by piece with small units of interacting
  concept and propositional frameworks.
• Novak (1992) The Theory Underlying Concept Maps
  and How To Construct Them http//cmap.coginst.uwf
  .edu/info/

Mental Maps are used to,
Organize Information and
Reconstruct ideas
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Situated Learning

• Social interaction is a critical component of
  situated learning -- learners become involved in
  a "community of practice" which embodies certain
  beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the
  beginner or newcomer moves from the periphery of
  this community to its center, they become more
  active and engaged within the culture and hence
  assume the role of expert or old-timer.
  Furthermore, situated learning is usually
  unintentional rather than deliberate.
• Situated Learninghttp//tip.psychology.org/lave.h
  tml

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Cognitive Apprenticeship

• A method of teaching aimed primarily at teaching
  the processes that experts use to handle complex
  tasks. This method includes
• Collis, Brown, Newman, (1989).

• Modeling
• Coaching
• Articulation
• Reflection
• Exploration

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Learning Environments
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The Intelligent Learning Environment

• The term intelligent learning environment' (ILE)
  refers to a category of educational software in
  which the learner is put into a problem solving
  situation. A learning environment is quite
  different from traditional courseware based on a
  sequence of questions, answers and feedback. The
  best known example of a learning environment is a
  flight simulator the learner does not answer
  questions about how to pilot an aircraft, he
  learns how to behave like a "real" pilot in a
  rich flying context.
• Dillenbourg, Hilario, Mendelsohn, Schneider, and
  Boric (1994) Intelligent Learning
  Environmentshttp//tecfa.unige.ch/tecfa/tecfa-res
  earch/memolab/report93.book.html

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One ILE The MUD

• MUD or "Multi-User Dungeon, an example of
  constructionism," was developed in 1979 as a
  multi-player Dungeons and Dragons game.
• There is no score or goal, but instead a
  gathering of people who enjoy one another's
  virtual company and actively engage in creating
  something that is meaningful to themselves and to
  others around them.
• MUDs are examples of the application of
  constructionist ideas to virtual reality design
  active processes, in which people actively
  construct knowledge from their experiences in the
  world.
• Bruckman and Resnick The MediaMOO Project
  Constructionism and Professional Community
  http//asb.www.media.mit.edu/people/asb/convergen
  ce.html

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Constructivist Learning Environment

• There are as many interpretations of the
  constructivist theory drawing research in
  cognition and instruction. Each theoretical
  framework investigated reflects some notion of
  constructivist values, particularly Lebow's set
  of "seven core values" cited in two studies
  (collaboration, personal autonomy, generativity,
  reflectivity, active engagement, personal
  relevance, and pluralism). It seems that
  constructivist learning environments share only
  the broadest of similarities All are places
  designed to engage students into constructing
  knowledge meaningfully.
• review (by Denise Herman) http//carbon.cudenver.
  edu/public/education/edschool/cog/bibs/denise2.htm
  l

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Mental Models

• Mental models are the conceptual and operational
  representations that humans develop while
  interacting with complex systems. Being able to
  reliably and validly operationalize users' mental
  models will help us to assess advanced knowledge
  and problem solving skills acquired while
  interacting with constructivist learning
  environments.
• Univ. Colorado Denver, Instructional Technology
  Program, Theoretical Sources http//carbon.cudenv
  er.edu/mryder/itc_data/theory.html

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Schema Theory

• All human beings possess categorical rules or
  scripts that they use to interpret the world. New
  information is processed according to how it fits
  into these rules, called schema. These schema can
  be used not only to interpret but also to predict
  situation occurring in our environment.
  Information that does not fit into these schema
  may not be comprehended, or may not be
  comprehended correctly. Most schema theorists
  postulate that there is not just one body of
  knowledge available to learners at any given
  stage of development, but rather a network on
  context-specific bodies of knowledge that
  learners apply to specific situations.
• Schema Theory (Greg Kearsley) http//tip.psycholo
  gy.org/schema.html

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Schemas and Culture

• Our minds are made up of schemas, organized into
  stories, in which the elements are invested with
  value and emotion, which are about who we are
  essentially as people. A collection of minds,
  with similarities in these schemas, is part of
  what makes up cultures and subcultures.
• Sanes (1999) Schemas and Stories
  http//transparencynow.com/news/schemastories.htm
  

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Social Learning Theory

• Current conceptualizations of Sociocultural
  theory draw heavily on the work of Vygotsky
  (1986), as well as later theoreticians (see, for
  example, Wertsch, 1991, 1998). According to Tharp
  and Gallimore (1988) "This view the
  Sociocultural perspective has profound
  implications for teaching, schooling, and
  education.
• A key feature of this emergent view of human
  development is that higher order functions
  develop out of social interaction.
• Socio-Cultural Theory http//carbon.cudenver.edu/
  mryder/itc_data/soc_cult.html

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Andragogy

• Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to
  develop a theory specifically for adult learning.
  Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed
  and expect to take responsibility for decisions.
  Adult learning programs must accommodate this
  fundamental aspect.
• andragogy (Patrick Mendelsohn)
  http//tecfa.unige.ch/themes/sa2/act-app-dos2-fic
  -andragog.htm

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Designing Learning Environments For Adults

• The Instructor should focus more on the process
  and less on the content being taught.
• Strategies such as case studies, role playing,
  simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful.
  Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or
  resource rather than lecturer or grader.
• Instruction should take into account the wide
  range of different backgrounds of learners
  learning materials and activities should allow
  for different levels/types of previous experience
  with computers.
• andragogy (Patrick Mendelsohn) http//tecfa.unige
  .ch/themes/sa2/act-app-dos2-fic-andragog.htm

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Learner Motivation
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ARCS Motivation Theory According to John
Keller, there are four major categories of
motivational strategies

• Relevance

• Attention
• Confidence
• Integrating Instructional Design in Distance
  Education
• http//ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/ARCS.htm

• Satisfaction

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Gaining Attention

• According to Keller attention can be gained in
  two ways-perceptual arousal and inquiry arousal.
• Perceptual arousal comes from using surprise or
  uncertainty to gain interest.
• Inquiry arousal stimulates curiosity by posing
  challenging questions or problems to be solved.
• Kellers ARCS Model Attentionhttp//coe.sdsu.ed
  u/eet/Articles/attention/start.htm

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Self-Regulation

• Self-regulation refers to the use of processes
  that activate thoughts, behaviors, and affects in
  order to attain goals.
• http//education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyB
  ook/Edpsy7/edpsy7_self.htm

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Three Components of Self-regulation

• Self-observation. Deliberate attention to
  specific aspects of ones own behaviors.
• Self-judgment. Comparing ones current progress
  toward a goal with a standard.
• Self-reaction. Making evaluative responses to
  judgments of ones own performance.
• (Author unknown, 2003, paragraph 5,
  http//education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyB
  ook/Edpsy7/edpsy7_self.htm)

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Goal Setting

• Two of the key elements of self-regulated
  learning strategies are goal setting and
  self-evaluation.
• Goal setting is essential to learning because it
  sets the standards for students to evaluate
  their performance, and students are motivated to
  keep exerting efforts to adjust their behaviors
  to achieve optimal outcomes because they want to
  reach their goals.
• Self-Regulation Through Goal-Settinghttp//www.er
  icfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed462671.htm
  l

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Self-Regulated LearnersWhen faced with a
learning task, self-regulated learners typically
do the following

• They begin by analyzing the task and interpreting
  task requirements in terms of their current
  knowledge and beliefs.
• They set task-specific goals, which they use as a
  basis for selecting, adapting, and possibly
  inventing strategies that will help them
  accomplish their objectives.
• After implementing strategies, they monitor their
  progress toward goals, thereby generating
  internal feedback about the success of their
  efforts.
• They adjust their strategies and efforts based on
  their perception of ongoing progress.
• They use motivational strategies to keep
  themselves on task when they become discouraged
  or encounter difficulties.
• Self-Regulation of Learninghttp//education.calum
  et.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy7/edpsy7_self
  .htm

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My Philosophical Beliefs

• I believe that learning requires showing that
  you can analyze and apply knowledge. Contrary to
  behaviorism, which only focuses on observable
  behavior and cognitive science which neglects the
  role of emotions in human thought. The sensory
  register holds information that you receive
  through your senses. Students make connections
  with examples in their environment that support
  themes and sensory impressions. In doing so,
  they move information from the sensory register
  into working memory and eventually long-term
  memory for processing and retrieval. Concept
  mapping is an activity that helps organize and
  structure knowledge. For doing so, we have the
  ability to pull it from long-term memory.

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My Philosophical Beliefs continued

• Meaning making is seldom accomplished
  individually. Information is represented in
  multiple ways and modeling is critical to
  understanding. We naturally tend to share meaning
  with others and rely on feedback from others to
  help us determine our identity and personal
  beliefs. I believe that in order to realize a
  goal, one must first have the ability to regulate
  and judge oneself.

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My Philosophical Beliefs continued

• I believe that people actively construct
  knowledge from their experiences in the world.
  The constructivist learning environment
  collaborates, enjoys personal autonomy,
  generativity, reflectivity, active engagement,
  and applies personal relevance, and pluralism to
  projects. If I were to develop an instructional
  product, this is the design model I would
  implement.

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My Philosophical Beliefs continued

• Defining mental models will help us measure
  problem solving skills acquired during the
  learning environment interaction. Results can be
  used to activate behaviors in response to
  performance and goal setting. The excitement
  generated by students while they construct
  understanding using technology is a rewarding
  experience.

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References

• Andragogy (Patrick Mendelsohn) http//tecfa.unig
  e.ch/themes/sa2/act-app-dos2-fic-andragog.htm
• Author unknown, 2003, paragraph 5,
• http//education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsy
  Book/Edpsy7/edpsy7_self.htm
• Behaviorism (Definition, Discussion, and Impact)
• http//www.funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm
• Bruckman and Resnick The MediaMOO Project
  Constructionism and Professional Community
  http//asb.www.media.mit.edu/people/asb/converge
  nce.html
• Cognitive Information Processing (David Perry)
• http//education.indiana.edu/7Ep540/webcourse/c
  ip.html
• Cognitive Science in Pieces http//lucs.fil.lu.s
  e/People/David.de.Leon/Papers/Pieces.html
• Collins, Brown, Newman (1989). Methods and
  skills to teach students to learn on their own.
• Cognitive Apprenticeship, p. 457-548.
• Dillenbourg, Hilario, Mendelsohn, Schneider, and
  Boric (1994) Intelligent Learning
  Environments http//tecfa.unige.ch/tecfa/tecfa-re
  search/memolab/report93.book.html
• Herman, Denise (review)
• http//carbon.cudenver.edu/public/education/edsc
  hool/cog/bibs/denise2.html
• How Cognitive Psychology Developed
  http//www.uwinnipeg.ca/7Eepritch1/amdvlop.htm
  
• Integrating Instructional Design in Distance
  Education
• http//ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/ARCS.htm
• Kellers ARCS Model Attention http//coe.sdsu.e
  du/eet/Articles/attention/start.htm

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References Continued

• Novak (1992) The Theory Underlying Concept Maps
  and How To Construct Them http//cmap.coginst.uw
  f.edu/info
• Pavlov, Ivan (Classical Conditioning) http//www.
  psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Pavlov.htm
• Sanes (1999) Schemas and Stories
  http//transparencynow.com/news/schemastories.ht
  m
• Schema Theory (Greg Kearsley) http//tip.psychol
  ogy.org/schema.html
• Self-Regulation of Learning http//education.calu
  met.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy7/edpsy7_sel
  f.htm
• Self-Regulation Through Goal-Setting
  http//www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digest
  s/ed462671.html
• Situated Learning http//tip.psychology.org/lave.
  html
• Socio-Cultural Theory http//carbon.cudenver.edu
  /mryder/itc_data/soc_cult.html
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy c/o Paul
  Thagard, 2002, paragraph 1, http//plato.stanford
  .edu/entries/cognitive-science
• Univ. Colorado Denver, Instructional Technology
  Program, Theoretical Sources
• http//carbon.cudenver.edu/mryder/itc_data/theo
  ry.html