AGRI 101 Introduction to Agriculture

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AGRI 101Introduction to Agriculture

• Dr. Martin Stone

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Agriculture

• Science, art, or practice of cultivating soil
  producing crops, and raising livestock, and the
  preparation and marketing of the resulting
  products

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Agriculture

• Horticulture
• most diverse and interesting field
• Landscape Design
• Landscape Construction
• Landscape Maintenance
• Nursery Production field and container
• Greenhouse Production Tropical Foliage,
  flowering potted plants, cut flowers

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Agriculture

• Horticulture (contd)
• Pomology
• Small fruits
• Tree fruits and nuts
• Olericulture
• Turf/Golf Course

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Agriculture

• Agronomy Field Crops
• Corn, soybeans, wheat, tobacco
• Fiber crops
• Forages
• Forestry
• Soils erosion and fertility
• Harvesting Production of timber
• Management of Wild Areas
• Urban Forestry (horticulture)

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Agriculture

• Animal Sciences
• Cattle
• Dairy, beef
• Poultry
• Sheep/Goats
• Horse
• Swine

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Textbooks

• Have been ordered and will appear in the
  bookstore in a few days!

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What do humans need?

• Food
• Shelter
• Clothing
• Medicine
• Love

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Agriculture

• Plant sciences
• Animal sciences
• Economic Sciences
• Mechanical/Engineering Sciences
• Soil Sciences

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World Wide

• Worlds surface area 112 billion A
• Cropland is 3-4
• Remainder is ice, water, mountains, etc.
• World Land Area 32 b A
• 29 of entire planets surface

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The most popular photograph in history, taken
from Apollo 17.
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World Wide

• World Land Area 32 b A (29 of World Total)
• 11.5 b A Agricultural - 36 of Land Total
• 3.5 b A Cropland - 11 of Land Total
• 8 b A grazing - 25 of Land Total
• 10.6 b A forest 33 of Land Total
• Remainder Desert or Ice or Mountains

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United States

• 2.265 b A 7 of worlds land area
• 413 m A Cropland
• Remainder forest, pasture, range

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United States, Number of Farms (1000)
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United States,Average Farm Size (A)
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United States,Land in Farms (1000)
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KentuckyNumber of Farms (1000)
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Kentucky,Avg. Farm Size (A)
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KentuckyLand in Farms (1000 A)
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Kentucky Farmland Prices ()
KY
US
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Kentucky Agriculture 2004

• 4th behind TX, MO, IA, tied w/ TN

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Kentucky Agriculture 2005
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Kentucky Agriculture 2005
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Kentucky Agriculture 2005
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Kentucky Agriculture 2004

• What was the cash leader for the entire state?

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Sales of horses including stud fees,
2,300,000,000
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KY Horses

• 2.3 Billion KY horse industry
• Almost 200,000 persons involved in KY horses
• 320,000 horses in KY

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Top Cattle Counties?

• Barren
• Warren
• Pulaski
• Madison
• Monroe
• Largest Beef State East of Mississippi
• 8th Largest in Nation

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Kentucky Agriculture
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Kentucky Crops Know the Big 4
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World Population
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Thomas Malthus

• Essay on the Principle of Population in 1798
• Human population increases geometrically
• Resources increase arithmetically
• Therefore, POPULATIONS WILL GROW UNTIL THEY CRASH

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Population Growth and Resources

• Yeast
• Fungi that live on sugar
• Thought Experiment
• Add fungi to container with water and sugar
• What happens to the population?

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Population and Resource Growth
Yeast
Sugar
Population Growth Surpasses Resources
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Population and Resource Growth
Population
Famine
Resources
Population Crashes!!
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Thomas Malthus

• Predicted
• Land Degradation
• Massive Famine
• Disease
• War
• Has this happened?
• Where?

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Malthuss Predictions USA Developed Countries

• Predictions Delayed by Technology
• Fertilizer more yield per acre
• Irrigation more yield per acre and opened more
  land in arid regions
• Green Revolution Crops (Breeding)
• Human Birth Control
• Education of Women

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World Population Growth
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Causes for World Population Growth

• DDT/Malaria
• Childhood immunizations
• Education of females
• Green Revolution Crops
• Use of fertilizers and pesticides
• Religious Beliefs large families, contraception

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Agriculture

• We practice it on a local level
• Must think globally

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Famine

• Part of Agriculture in much of the world
• Not a factor in this country
• Many in our country eat too much!
• We spend as much on diets, pills, and books about
  diets than some countries spend on importing food?

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Frequency of Famines 1945-1975Latin America
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Frequency of Famines 1945-1975Africa
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Frequency of Famines 1945-1975Africa
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Frequency of Famines 1945-1975Africa
Asia, Middle East, Europe Trend Continues Today
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World Population

• How many people can the earth support?
• Who Knows, possibly 20 Billion

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Conclusion

• There has been a famine in the world almost every
  year since WWII
• Human Suffering
• Political Instability
• Causes are
• Manmade
• Natural

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Consider

• World gtgt 6,000,000,000 persons
• Entire world depends on 25 crops of which
• 3 5 are heavily relied upon
• Risk mass starvation
• Susceptible to disease/insect damage

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Irish Potato Famine

• Reliance on one food
• 1.5 A fed family of six, would take 8 A of wheat
  for same level!
• 1845 cool, wet summer
• Potato blight fungus imported from South America
  by mistake
• Spread by spores throughout country without notice

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Irish Potato Famine

• When they dug tubers in the fall, half the crop
  was rotted
• Theories of the day
• Static electricity from new steam locomotives
• Mortiferous vapors from volcanoes
• Tubers contracted dropsy
• Tubers continued to rot but they did nothing to
  stop it

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Irish Potato Famine

• Lasted from 1845 to 1851
• Hunger, disease, weakened bodies
• Death from dysentery and others

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Famine in the USSR 1930-33

• Stalin in 1928 proposed a five year plan to
  collectivize many of the farms
• Ownership taken by state
• Resettlement of millions of peasant farmers to
  farms operated by communes
• Huge loss of crop production
• Famine, Starvation, Millions died

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Causes of Famine

• Irish Potato Famine
• Russian Famine
• African Famines
• Consecutive years of below average rain
• Political redistribution of land or food aid
• Robert Mugabe, Pres. Zimbabwe land reform

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Reducing Famine

• Diversify food supplies
• Keep food reserves safe
• Population control
• Political stability
• Better transportation, highways and ports
• Education, better economic outlook

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Text Books are in at Bookstore
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CHINA

• 1.28 Billion persons in 2002
• 5X U.S.
• 20 of worlds population
• Land area slightly less than U.S.
• 10 Arable land vs. 19 in U.S.

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China

• 1979 decided to limit pop to 1.2 B by 2000
• One child per couple policy
• Couples rewarded money, vacation, more land to
  farm
• One child children get better education, housing,
  jobs

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India

• Family planning less aggressive
• 947 million, .947 Billion persons
• Expected to reach 2 Billion by 2025 and become
  the worlds most populous nation

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Name the top 3 World Crops

• Rice
• Corn
• Wheat
• What do they have in common?
• All grasses!!
• We have low diversity for
• Pest Resistance
• Nutrition

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Green Revolution

• Feeding the Growing World

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Green Revolution

• The most significant development of agriculture
  of the 20th century
• Dr. Norman Borlaug
• 1970 Nobel Peace Prize

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Landrace Varieties

• Tall
• Leafy
• Large root system
• Evolved to compete under high pest pressure and
  marginal production areas

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Landrace Wheat
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Green Revolution Wheat
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Green Revolution Varieties

• Physical Changes to Plants
• Shorter plants
• Smaller leaves
• Stronger stems
• Smaller root systems

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Results of G.R. Crops

• More plants/acre higher yield
• India exports wheat now, not starving
• BUT
• Less competitive plants more need for weed
  control, herbicides
• Genetic variability gone
• More fertilizer to produce higher yields

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G.R. Crops

• Bottom Line
• Millions now fed
• Requires more management and inputs
• Has been criticized for this but

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Soils

• Not just Dirt

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Soil Importance

• Agriculture
• Construction
• Depository for waste
• Beauty

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What is soil?

• Minerals from weathered rock
• Organic matter
• Decaying plants
• Decaying animals
• Decaying microbes
• Water
• Air
• Living Organisms

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Functions of Soil

• Provide physical support for plants
• Provide nutrients
• Provide water
• Support biological activity of microbes,
  earthworms, etc.

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Soil Profile

• Vertical cross section showing horizons or layers
• Horizons determine value and use of land

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0 25 in. Roots, highest biological activity,
microbes, OM
A
25 36 in. Accumulation from A, more mineral,
less OM, less oxygen, less biological activity
B
36 in. Weathered parent rock
C
BEDROCK
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Nutrients aka Fertilizer

• Macronutrients used in large quantities
• Nitrogen N promotes leafy green growth
• Phosphorous P promotes flowering
• Potassium K promotes root growth and cold
  hardiness

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Macronutrients

• Appear on the fertilizer label
• Always appear in order N P K
• 20 20 20
• N P K
• 0 60 0
• 33 0 0

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Micronutrients

• Trace elements
• Needed in smaller quantities
• Mg
• Mn
• Cu
• Fe
• B
• Mo
• Zn

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Macronutrients and Micronutrients

• CHOPKNS CaFe Mg
• CuZn BMo Cl Mn
• Know them for the exam

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Organic vs. Inorganic Ferts.

• Organic not wholesome and pure
• Denotes source of elements
• Organic derived from living organisms
• Compost, sea weed, fish emulsion, manure

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Organic vs. Inorganic Ferts.

• Inorganic does not mean evil or wrong
• Designates source processing or mining
• N natural gas
• P and K - mined

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Organic Ferts.

• Organic Ferts low in nutrients
• Manure lt2 N
• Inorganic gt 30 N
• Cost per pound of N?
• Ease of Application?
• Bonus with Organic Adds OM

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Slow Release Ferts.

• Organic manure rots over time
• Inorganic engineered to be slow release

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Osmocote
Various particle sizes are coated with various
thickness of a resin coating.
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Osmocote
Thin coating breaks down first
Thicker coating breaks down last
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Availability

• All nutrients are available based not only on
  amount applied but also the pH

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Availability
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Availability
Clematis
Ericaceous Plants
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Environmental Concerns

• Runoff into surface waters
• Leaching through soil profile into groundwater

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Biological Nitrogen Fixation

• 78 of atmosphere is nitrogen gas
• Inert
• Unusable as macronutrient

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Biological Nitrogen Fixation

• 2 ways nature converts nitrogen gas to usable
  form
• Lightning
• Rhizobium bacteria
• Found in symbiotic relationship with plants in
  legume (bean) family
• Peas, redbud, alfalfa, locust, soybean, wisteria

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Biological Nitrogen Fixation

• Rhizobium found in root nodules
• Free nitrogen, transportation, application

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Rhizobium nodules on roots
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Black alder seedlings growing without N
fertilizer Left not growing with bacteria Right
with bacteria
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Physical Properties of Soils
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Physical Properties of Soils

• Color indicates parent material, amount of OM,
  aerobicity or not of soil, clay content
• Texture proportion of sandsiltclay

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Soil Texture Triangle
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What texture of soil is 20 Clay 15 Sand 65
Silt?
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Agents of Soil Erosion

• Wind - Dust Bowl, 1930s Great Plains
• Water Impact of raindrops, running water
• Biological cattle overgrazing
• Temperature changes in soil chemistry, mainly a
  problem in the tropics

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Soils and Fertility in Horticulture
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Types of Soils Media

• Native Soils
• Soilless Media
• Sing. Medium, pl. Media
• Hydroponics
• Tissue Culture
• Sand/Gravel Culture
• Bag Culture

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Soilless Media

• Used in Container Nursery Production
• All Greenhouse Crops
• Foliage
• Flower production
• Potted flowering plants

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Soilless Media

• Field Soil is NOT used in containers
• Soil structure is destroyed
• Loss of pore space long capillary tubes in soil
  that allow water and gasses to be exchanged are
  destroyed when placed into a pot
• Poor aeration
• Poor drainage
• POOR PLANT PERFORMANCE!!

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Components of Soilless Media

• Sand adds weight to hold the pot upright and
  adds porosity.
• Little water holding or CEC capacity

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Components of Soilless Media

• Sand
• Bark - creates a lightweight portion that adds
  porosity
• Little water holding or CEC capacity

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Components of Soilless Media

• Sand
• Bark
• Peat - holds water like a sponge with a high CEC

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Components of Soilless Media

• Sand
• Bark
• Peat
• Compost Less expensive alternative to peat that
  holds water, has a high CEC, and decomposes to N
  and P among others.

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Assignment Due Friday 9-24

• Find a newspaper or magazine article about one of
  following topics. Write a 200 word summary of
  the article and how it affects your life.
• Breeding/Green Revolution
• Soil fertility/Erosion
• Any topic in Horticulture/LS/Gardening/Veggie/Frui
  t and Nut production

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Components of Soilless Media

• Sand
• Bark
• Peat
• Compost
• Vermiculite
• Vermiculite is a sterile, lightweight mica
• heated to approximately 1800 degrees F
• plate-like structure expands, allowing it to
  retain large quantities of air and water

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Vermiculite
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Components of Soilless Media

• Sand
• Bark
• Peat
• Compost
• Vermiculite
• Perlite
• produced by heating volcanic rock to
  approximately 1800 degrees F
• sterile, lightweight, porous material

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Perlite - Coarse
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Tropical Foliage Plant Production
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Hydroponic Production
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Hydroponic Production
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Field Nursery
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Container Nursery
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Container Plant Production
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Container Tree Nursery
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Soilless Media
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Commercial Media
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Soilless Media Mixers
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Soilless Media Plug Trays and Filling Machine
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Peat Harvest
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Peat Harvest
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Peat Harvest
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Peat Vacuum
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Soils in Landsapes

• Amend, Import, Alter, Improve

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Soils in Landscapes
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Soils in Landscapes
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Soils in Landscapes
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Soils in Landscapes
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Soils must be Amended
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Modifying Landscape Soils

• Easier to amend soil BEFORE planting rather than
  AFTER!

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Modifying Landscape Soils-Amendments

• Soil
• Usually sandy loam, blended
• Watch out for clay chunks, weed seeds or other
  propagules, roots, trash
• Always inspect the soil
• Look for consistency

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Modifying Landscape Soils-Amendments

• Soil is not usually enough
• Must add an OM component
• Manure must be decomposed, not raw
• Compost must be decomposed, not raw
• Peat except on small sites
• Bagged goods cotton seed hulls, chicken litter,
  steer manure, decomposed alfalfa, sheep doo
  check them carefully before using. No Surprises!

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Modifying Landscape Soils

• If soil is too dry, add OM for aeration
• If soil is too wet, add OM for drainage
• If soil is low in nutrients, add OM
• OM is called the Humble Miracle for good reason

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Importance of Crop Plants

• Plants are only important if like breathing or
  eating

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Top 4 ListWhy crops are important

• Primary producer in the food chain
• 3. Animals depend on them
• Fossil Fuels
• 1. Humans use them for food, medicine, fiber,
  building materials, oxygen, aesthetics, waxes,
  perfumes, etc.

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Crop Classification

• Five Kingdoms animals, plants, fungi, protista,
  monera
• Classification for Soybeans

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Soybeans

• Kingdom Plantae
• Division Magnoliophyta
• Class Magnoliopsida
• Order Rosales
• Family Fabaceae (leguminosae)
• Genus Glycine
• Species max

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Common Names of Plants

• Not used in Science
• Common names change from town to town or person
  to person
• No consistency
• Foreign communication difficult
• Periwinkle, Vinca minor
• Periwinkle, Catharanthus rosea

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Advantage of Latin

• Dead, not changing
• No single country claims it
• Useful communication for all people of the world

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Vavilovs Centers of Origin
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Important Families
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Some Important Crops
For more crops, see textbook, page 15-16
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Binomial Nomenclature
Name this tree
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Binomial Nomenclature
Name this tree Redbud
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Binomial Nomenclature

Name this tree Redbud Judas Tree
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Binomial Nomenclature

Name this tree Redbud Judas Tree Salad Tree
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Binomial Nomenclature

Name this tree Redbud Judas Tree Salad
Tree ALL WRONG
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Binomial Nomenclature

Cercis canadensis
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Binomial Nomenclature

Cercis canadensis
genus
species
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Warning,
For the sake of your professional and
intellectual reputation, do NOT use the word,
specie. There is no such word! Deer (sing.)
deer (pl.) Moose (sing.) moose (pl.) Sheep
(sing.) sheep (pl.) Species (sing.)
species (pl.)
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Plant Life Cycles
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Plant Life Cycles

• Annual a plant that completes its life cycle in
  one season
• Winter Annual germinates in fall, establishes
  crown and root system in fall, overwinters,
  flowers and dies in spring. Vegetative Phase in
  Fall Sexual Phase in Spring
• Winter wheat, annual bluegrass, henbit, chickweed

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Plant Life Cycles

• Annual
• Winter Annual
• Summer Annual germinates in spring, grows in
  summer, flowers, sets seed, and dies before
  winter. Vegetative Growth in Spring/Summer
• Sexual Growth in Late Summer/Fall

Impatiens, beans, corn, sunflower, begonia
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Plant Life Cycles
Perennial a plant that lives for more than one
year, is herbaceous, and regrows each year from a
perennating structure Hosta, daylily, iris, some
ferns, heucheras, coneflower, vinca
groundcover Distinct from shrubs-woody lt10,
mult.stems trees woody gt10 main trunk
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Plant Life Cycles

• Biennials Bi two, ennial years
• Intermediate life cycle between annuals and
  perennials
• Live for two years with distinct growth patterns
  for each year

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Plant Life Cycles

• Year 1 grow vegetatively
• Leaves, stems, roots
• Usually grow in a rosette
• Year 2 grow reproductively (sexually)
• Send up flower stalk
• Set seed
• Die
• Hollyhocks, cabbage, carrots

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Name the Life Cycle

• Corn
• Soybeans
• Roses
• Kentucky bluegrass
• Carrot
• Oak tree
• Potato -

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Hardiness Zones

• What is the single most important limiting factor
  for plant growth besides water?

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Hardiness Zones

• Annual Minimum Temperature
• Determines world biomes to a large extent
• Determines growing season length
• Determines what you can grow in your garden and
  landscape

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USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map
Hardiness Zones -- Details
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Kentucky is Zone 6b, 6a, and 5b
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Temperature

• Calorie the heat required to change the
  temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C

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Climate vs. Weather

• Climate includes temperature, precipitation,
  humidity, sky conditions, wind, and atmospheric
  pressure
• Climate is the average conditions over a long
  period
• Weather is the current and temporary atmospheric
  conditions
• Difference is time span

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Climate Types

• Macroclimate describes the conditions over a
  relatively large area i.e. a portion of a state
  or county
• Local climate refers to more localized conditions
  i.e. a valley or mountain
• Microclimate is the conditions around a plant or
  leaf
• Microclimate can be modified by us to grow
  marginally hardy plants

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Solar Radiation

• Source of heat and light Sun
• 93,000,000 miles away, 9 min. travel at speed of
  light
• The wavelengths that reach earths outer
  atmosphere do not completely reach the surface-
  filtered

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Solar radiation

• Absorbed
• Light absorbed by atmospheric components
• Ozone
• Water vapor (clouds)
• Dust
• Oxygen, Carbon dioxide
• UV (ultraviolet) and IR (infrared) light damaging
  to plants and absorbed in atm.

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Solar Radiation

• Scattered
• Dust, smoke, water droplets, smog
• Small particles (gas molecules) scatter shorter
  wavelengths (blue)
• Large particles (dust, smoke) scatter longer
  wavelengths (red)

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Solar Radiation

• Reflection
• Light bounces off components of atm.
• Clouds major reflector
• Ex. Flying on a cloudy day then breaking through
  the layer, the sunlight is very intense

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Modifying Cold Temps
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Modifying Temperatures

• Frost Protection
• Most effective and widely used is mist irrigation
• Can prevent damage down to 20F, but usually only
  to the upper 20s
• As the temp drops below freezing, ice forms,
  releases heat of fusion

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Freezes and Frosts

• Radiational Freeze calm conditions, radiational
  cooling, not a blanket of cloud cover to hold in
  heat

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Radiational Freeze
Sunset beginning a cold, clear night
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Freezes and Frosts-Damage Control

• Radiational Freeze
• Reduce outgoing radiation
• Hotcaps
• Row cover
• Flooding (cranberries)
• Foams
• Straw covering (must be removed) strawberries
• Artificial fog

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Row Cover with Tomatoes
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Freezes and Frosts-Damage Control

• Radiational Freeze
• 2. Add heat
• Smudge pots
• Utilize the temperature inversion with fans or
  helicopters
• Overhead irrigation- water gives off heat when it
  freezes (80cal/g). Must constantly add water.
  As long as liquid water is present, the temp.
  remains at 0 F

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Temperature Inversion
CALM NIGHT
Warmer Air, ie. 36 F
Crop Will FREEZE!!!
Very Cold Air, ie. 30 F
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Temperature Inversion
Mix Air
Air Mixture is Now 34 F and the Crop is Safe!
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Freezes and Frosts

• Advective Freeze
• Large, cold air mass moves in from Canada
• Associated with windy conditions

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Freezes and Frosts-Damage Control

• ADVECTIVE FREEZE
• Not much you can do.

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Freezes and Frosts
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Freezes and Frosts

• Radiational Freeze calm conditions, radiational
  cooling, not a blanket of cloud cover to hold in
  heat

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Freezes and Frosts

• Advective Freeze
• Large, cold air mass moves in from Canada
• Associated with windy conditions

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Freezes and Frosts-Damage Control

• Radiational Freeze
• Reduce outgoing radiation
• Hotcaps
• Row cover
• Flooding (cranberries)
• Foams
• Straw covering (must be removed) strawberries
• Artificial fog

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Row Cover with Tomatoes
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Freezes and Frosts-Damage Control

• Radiational Freeze
• 2. Add heat
• Smudge pots
• Utilize the temperature inversion with fans or
  helicopters
• Overhead irrigation- water gives off heat when it
  freezes (80cal/g). Must constantly add water.
  As long as liquid water is present, the temp.
  remains at 0 F

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Freezes and Frosts-Damage Control

• ADVECTIVE FREEZE
• Not much you can do.

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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather

• Growth slows in fall, no longer using
  photosynthate for new growth, stored for winter.
• Accumulation of starches and sugars, pectins and
  nucleic acids in cells adds to their viscosity
  and depresses the freezing point.

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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather
sugar


salt
FP -3 C
FP 0 C
autumn
summer
Anti-Freeze
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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather

• NOTE plants exit dormancy or a hardened state
  much faster than they enter it.
• Peach tree blossoms example

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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather

• Ice is deadly
• Ice crystals are sharp and puncture cell
  membranes.
• Upon thawing, the contents of the cell
  (cytoplasm) leaks out
• Watersoaking appearance the morning after

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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather

• Intracellular vs Extracellular Ice formation
• Adaptation to cold weather
• Ice crystals actually form outside the cell
  membrane, usually between cell walls
• Harmless if no membranes are punctured

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Ice Forms Here Extracellular
Ice Forms Here Intracellular
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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather

• Extracellular ice formation can cause dehydration
  and death by drought in middle of winter
• Esp. damaging with broadleaf evergreens, azalea,
  boxwood

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Hardening Crops to Cold Weather

• Supercooling
• In the absence of nucleating agents, still,
  purified water will cool to a temperature to
  38.1 C. With solutes, it can drop to 40.1 C.
  Below this, some plants are killed.

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Ice Nucleating Agents

• Water supercools without them, freezes at 0 C
  with them.
• Frozen water is a crystal
• Crystals grow rapidly from a seeding agent
• A crystal
• Bacteria
• Dust particle

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Ice Nucleating Agents

• Once a crystal begins to grow, it will continue
• Snowflakes
• Intra and extracellular ice formation in cells
• Rain and seeding practices
• Bacterial protection of sensitive crops GM
  bacteria example

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Ice Nucleating Agents

• One of first GM organisms is 1970s
• Removed the ice nucleating portion of outside of
  bacteria
• Used to replace nucleating bacteria on sensitive
  crops
• GM bacteria displaces wild types
• Water cools to mid20s w/o injury

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Ice Nucleating Agents

• Laboratory testing showed less fit
• Does not live long and will not spread
• Short-term process
• Per testing standards, researchers wore space
  suits with self containing breathing apparatus
• Eco terrorists and media nightmare

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Vegetative (Asexual)Propagation
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Vegetative Propagation

• Making more plants without sex (seeds)
• A form of cloning that has been practiced for
  centuries
• Includes all techniques from rooting a houseplant
  in a glass of water to grafting fruit trees to
  tissue culture

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Techniques of Asexual Prop.

• Divisions
• Herbaceous perennials hosta, daylily, liriope
• Cuttings
• Leaf cuttings- African Violets
• Stem cuttings- Crape Myrtle
• Root cuttings-Blackberries

• Layering
• Houseplants, strawberry
• Grafting roses, fruit and nut trees
• Budding fruit and nut trees
• Tissue Culture ornamentals, most agronomic
  crops

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Vegetative Propagation

• Advantages
• -all offspring are clones (plants derived
  from the same parent plant by asexual means and
  are genetically identical)
• -some plants cant be propagated by seed
• -can decrease time to flower

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Vegetative Propagation

• Disadvantages
• -can only propagate a few from each parent
  (except tissue cultures)
• -requires a lot of labor
• -Diseases can be easily transmitted

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Totipotency

• Plant cells contain all the genetic information
  needed to regenerate a complete organism
• Totipotency allows stem or leaf cuttings to grow
  roots and vice versa
• Allows the regeneration of entire plants from a
  single cell

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Totipotency
Chrysanthemum stem cuttings freshly harvested
from the stock plant
Cuttings will be dipped in a hormone to
facilitate rooting and stuck into propagation
tray
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Totipotency
Stem grows root cells and roots after several
weeks
Production tray full of rooted cuttings
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Illustrated Examples of Asexual Propagation
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DIVIDING CLUMPS
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DIVIDING CLUMPS
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DIVIDING CLUMPS
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OFFSETS

• Hen and Chicks

240
BULBS
241
HARDWOOD/SOFTWOOD CUTTINGS
242
LEAF CUTTINGS

• Leaf bud
• Leaf petiole
• Leaf blade
• Leaf Section

243
LEAF CUTTINGS
244
African Violet Leaf Cuttings
245
African Violet Leaf Cuttings
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African Violet Leaf Cuttings
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LAYERING

• roots are formed on a stem before it is removed
  from the parent plant
• the stem is cut below the new root system and
  planted

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LAYERING(Important Points)

• similar to cuttings
• advantages (water, nutrients, disease)
• hard to root plants
• accumulation of photosynthates and hormones
• encourage by bending, girdling, or wounding
• etiolation
• shoot elongation in the absence of light
• natural means of reproduction
• strawberry runners, Bermuda grass stolons, hen
  and chic offsets

250
PHYSIOLOGY LAYERING WOODY PLANTS

• remove a ring of bark (removing phloem and
  cambium)
• xylem remains intact (water continues to move up
  the plant)
• accumulation of photosynthates and hormones

251
LAYERING
Tip
Simple
Compound/Serpentine
252
AIR LAYERING
253
LAYERINGcontinued

• Mound / Stool layer
• Trench Layer

254
WHY GRAFTING OR BUDDING?

• cannot be propagated by other means
• decrease time to flower and fruit
• change variety of existing, mature tree
• special forms (dwarf trees, tree roses, weeping
  cherry, etc.)
• obtain desirable traits of rootstock (disease
  resistance, adaptation, etc.)
• repair damage

255
PHYSIOLOGY of GRAFTING

• Scion
• Root Stock
• Cambium

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GRAFTING TYPES(Stock and Scion Same Sizes)
Whip or Tongue Graft
Saddle Graft
Splice Graft
258
GRAFTING(Stock and Scion Different Sizes)

• Wedge graft
• Cleft graft
• Side graft

259
APPROACH GRAFTING
260
APPROACH GRAFTING
261
GRAFTING (TO REPAIR DAMAGE)

• Brace Graft
• Bridge Graft

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Grafted Hibotan Cactus

• Top is NOT a flower
• Top is a mutant form that produces no chlorophyll
  but much pink pigment
• Photosynthesis must occur on green stock plant
• Usually last 6 mos. or less

264
T BUDDING

• Bud
• Rootstock

265
TYPES OF BUDDING
T BUD
INVERTED T BUD
I BUD
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TYPES OF BUDDINGContinued
Chip Bud
Flute Bud
268
T-budding an Apple Tree

• Photographic How-To

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A shield bud inserted in the "T" cut.
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Plant Structure and Function
282
Plant Structure and Function

• Cells
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665
• Looked like tiny rooms in which Monks slept,
  called cells
• Estimated 1256 million cells/ cu in.
• Form the basis building block of life

283
2 Types of Cells

• Prokaryotic no organization in cell
• Pro before, karyote nucleus
• DNA and cellular stuff floats freely around
  inside cells
• Primitive
• Found only in bacteria and blue-green algae

284
2 Types of Cells

• Eukaryotic highly organized
• eu true, karyote nucleus
• Higher life forms
• Contain specialize structures called organelles

285
Organelles

• Nucleus brains, contains DNA
• Mitochondria power plants
• Vacuoles sewage disposal, membrane bag, can
  occupy 90 of cell volume
• Ribosomes factories, proteins transcribed from
  DNA and translated into proteins (including
  enzymes)

286
Organelles, contd

• Endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes attach
• Cell wall made of the most abundant organic
  molecule on earth, rigid skeletal frame to hold
  plant upright and rigid
• Plasma membrane on inside cell wall, regulates
  what comes in and goes out