Organizational Change Theories Closed Systems Structuralism

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Organizational Change Theories

• Closed Systems
• Structuralism
• Open Systems
• Contingency Theories
• Conflict Theories
• Critical Theories
• Resistance Theories
• Diffusion Theories
• Connectivism Theories
• Chaos Theories

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Machine Theory

• Frederick Taylor Principals of Scientific
  Management
• scientific method to improve productivity,
• optimizing tasks,
• simplifying jobs,
• Specializing
• Time Studies most efficient way to perform a
  job
• initiatives and incentives ?increase productivity
• Reorganized from the bottom up (task to manager)

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Machine Theory

• Frederick Taylor Principals of Scientific
  Management
• 4 Principles
• Replace rule of thumb work with task studies
• Scientifically train develop worker
• Cooperate with workers to ensure efficiency
• Divide work equally between managers workers so
  managers could plan as workers worked

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Machine Theory

• Frederick Taylor Principals of Scientific
  Management
• Drawbacks
• Increase in monotony of work
• Missing from job skill variety, task identity,
  task significance, autonomy, and feedback
• Dehumanizing

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Machine Theory

• Fayol Administrative Theory
• Reorganized from the top-down
• Formalized studies general guidelines for the
  worker
• Hierarchical pyramid structure of control
• Superiors and subordinateschain of command
• Departmentalization groups related by process,
  purpose, or place
• Organization is a machine to produce a product as
  efficient as possible.

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Machine Theory

• Max Weber (1900)
• Bureaucracy Theory
• Ideal bureaucracy has hierarchy
• Impersonal
• Written rules of conduct
• Promotion based on achievement
• Division of labor for efficiency
• Goal oriented
• Draw back ? relied on benevolence of superiors

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HR Motivational Theories

• Elton Mayo
• Hawthorne Studies
• Work is a group activity
• Need for recognition, security and sense of
  belonging
• Complaints revolve around sense of status
• Group collaboration must be planned and developed
  to develop cohesion to resist disruptions
• Organization is a social group or work team

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HR Motivational Theories

• Abraham Maslow (1940s)
• 5 Needs
• Physiological
• Safety
• Love
• Esteem
• Self-actualization or self-fulfillment
• The urge to create, produce, for job satisfaction
• Management should meet the upper needs

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HR Motivational Theories

• Douglas McGregor The Human Side of Enterprise
  (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory
  X Y)
• Theory X Assumptions
• Humans have a dislike for work must be
  controlled or threatened to do work
• Most people want direction, dislike
  responsibility, desires security above all else
• Most people need to know what is expected of them
  and be held accountable.

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HR Motivational Theories

• Douglas McGregor The Human Side of Enterprise
  (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory
  X Y)
• Theory Y Assumptions
• Work is a natural state for humans
• Man can direct his own steps if he is committed
  to the goals of the organizationif explained
  fully grasps vision
• If the job is satisfying, people will be
  committed
• Most men seek responsibility
• Creativity and ingenuity can be used by employees
  to solve problems
• Most people have a lot more potential than they
  are given the opportunity to use.

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HR Motivational Theories

• Frederick Herzberg
• 2 Factor Hygiene Motivation Theory
• Hygiene Theory
• Job environment, the company, policies,
  administration, kind of supervision, working
  conditions, interpersonal relations, salary,
  status, and security

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HR Motivational Theories

• Frederick Herzberg
• 2 Factor Hygiene Motivation Theory
• Motivation Theory
• Job Opportunities achievement, recognition,
  growth / advancement
• Interest in the job
• Both approaches must be done simultaneously.
  Treat people as best you can AND
• Use them in jobs where they can achieve and
  grow

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HR Motivational Theories

• Lewins Informal groups

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Structuralism Bridge between Open Closed
Systems (1930-70s)

• Political struggle between rational and
  irrational

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Structuralism Bridge between Open Closed
Systems (1930-70s)

• Chester Bernard (1938)
• The Functions of the Executive
• Recycled Spencers Organismic Perspective
• Organizations exist by cooperation, willingness
  of workers, contributions toward a common purpose
• Management creates the goals Moral Imperative
  that binds workers to collective good

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Structuralism Bridge between Open Closed
Systems (1930-70s)

• Philip Selznick Institutionalism
• Resurrects Machine Theory with a twist
• Organization strikes bargains with its
  environment that change the present objectives
• Organization has such personality that reflects
  social needs and pressures (adaptation) from the
  environment
• Operative Goals what it does
• Professed Goals what it says it does (preparing
  students for the future)

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Selznick (1996)

• Organizations seek legitimacy to justify what
  they do.
• They tend to seek similarity for legitimacy
• Coercive Isomorphismforced to act a certain way
  by either another organization (TEA) or cultural
  expectations my school had doors windows
• Mimetic Isomorphismcopy each other when they are
  uncertain what to do
• Normative Isomorphismeveryone takes the same
  training and interact professionally

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Structuralism Bridge between Open Closed
Systems (1930-70s)

• Ralph Stogdill (1948) -Tautological
• 124 Characteristics of Leaders
• Capacity (intelligence, alertness)
• Achievement (scholarship, knowledge)
• Responsibility (dependable, initiative)
• Participation (active, social, cooperative)
• Status (socio-economic, position, popularity)
• Situation (mental level, status, skills)

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Structuralism Bridge between Open Closed
Systems (1930-70s)

• McCall Lombardo (1983) Anti-Traits
• Insensitive to others (abrasive, bully)
• Cold, aloof, arrogant
• Betrayal of trust
• Overly ambitious thinking of next job,
• Specific performance problems
• Over-managing unable to delegate
• Unable to think strategically
• Unable to adapt
• Over-dependent on a mentor

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Open-System Theory

• Katz Kahn(1978)
• Organizations adaptive interaction with changing
  environment emphasized goal is survival
• Organization is active system
• Input
• Throughput
• output
• Organization is a living organism

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Open systems are made up of subsystems that
  create homeostatsis for the organism. Mapping the
  environment requires sensing and assigning
  meaning to symbolic Information
• Imprints parts of the environment onto the
  organization.
• Symbolic ? Motivation Communication
• Feedback allows system to change goals on the
  fly

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Harold Leavitt (1964)
• 4 subsystems
• Tasksprocesses performed in system
• Structureorganization, governed
• Technologytype of equipment, knowledge, methods
• Humansskills, attitudes, roles, motivators

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Daniel Katz Robert Kahn(1966)
• 5 subsystems
• Technologyproduction
• Managerial
• Supportive interact with environment for influx
  of energy
• Maintenanceforces of stability
• Adaptiveforces devoted to change

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Open Systems (1960s)

• John Seilers (1967)
• Forces in the environment
• Internal
• Inputs
• Outputs
• Actual behaviors

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Getzel-Guba Model morphed
• Environment
• Communities?Collectives?Norms, Values
• Social System (school)
• Groups?Individual
• Interdependencies ? personalities
• Role expectation?Needs
• Schools Response

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Getzel-Guba Model morphed
• Carol Shakeshaft Irene Nowell (1984) argued
  that GG Model did not describe the reality of the
  feminine experience especially with role
  expectations keepers of the private realm

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Getzel-Guba Model morphed
• Environment
• Communities?Collectives?Norms, Values
• Social System (school)
• Groups?Individual
• Interdependencies ? personalities
• Role expectation?Needs
• Schools Response

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Open Systems (1960s)

• Process Theory?interactive processes that
  underlie motivation
• Vrooms Expectancy Theory
• ValencyEffort Expectancy Choice

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Flow of Information

• Machine Theory bottom up
• Bureaucracy Theory top down
• HR horizontal and vertical inside organization
• Structuralism depending on leadership traits
• Open systems horizontal vertical both inside
  and outside the organization, loop-backs
• J.G. Millers Information Overload

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Flow of Information

• J.G. Millers Information Overload
• Results in
• Omission
• Error
• Queuing
• Filtering
• Approximation
• Siemens Connectivists Theory of hyper processing
  multitasking.

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Contingency Theory

• Positivistic
• Nomotheticlaw-like regularities
• Methodologically positivistic empirical
  research (measures variables statistical
  analysis)
• Structure measured by material factors rather
  than idealistic factors
• Deterministic required responses
• Consciously scientific style

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Contingency Theory (1960-70s)

• Generalizable relationship between organizational
  and environmental contingencies, organizational
  structure, and leadership.
• Organizational contingencies include size, task
  structure, environmental factors usually
  uncertainty
• The leaders job is to alter the organizational
  structure to keep the system in sync with
  environmental contingencies
• Lawrence Lorsch (1967)

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Contingency Theory (1960-70s)

• Lawrence Lorsch (1967)
• Differentiation of
• specialists
• Predictable environments foster stable craftsmen
• Generalists are required for unstable
  environments
• Space depts in different locations
• Structure /Leadership Styles
• Size

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Contingency Theory (1960-70s)

• Structure /Leadership Styles

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Conflict Theory
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Critical Theory
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Innovation, Diffusion, Change Theory

• Hargreaves Fullen (1996) change is messy
• Everett Rogers
• Process of distributing innovation through a
  social system communication-based model
• Community of Teachers (not learners) seem to
  share superficial tricks or tips but not deep
  investigations into issues of teaching, learning
  and the profession.

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Diffusion formal Informal Communities

• Everett Rogers (1995) Diffusion of Innovations
• Example Self-organizing virtual learning
  communities versus the processes in bounded
  learning communities
• 4-Elements Present
• The new idea innovation
• Communication channels
• Time
• Social System engaged in joint problem solving
  activities to accomplish goals

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Diffusion Theory - Rogers

• Innovations as perceived by individuals
• Relative advantage better than what we are
  doing?
• Compatibility-consistent with existing values,
  needs
• Complexitydifficult to understand or use?
• Trialability is it used on a limited basis
• Observability do we see results?
• Support time, energy, resources, political
  backing

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Diffusion Process -- Rogers

• E.M. Rogers(1995) Diffusion of Innovations
• 5-Step Adoption Process
• Awareness --knowledge
• Interest--persuasion
• Decisionengages in activity
• Trial /Implementation
• Confirmation -- Adoption

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Diffusion Process

• Rate of Adoption
• Perceived attributes of innovation
• Type of innovation-decision
• Communication channels
• Nature of the social system
• Extent of change agents promotion efforts

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Tipping Point

• The concept of the tipping point is the build-up
  of small changes that effect a big change
• Stickiness Factor staying power of an innovation
  keeping ones attention
• Internets greatest economy is in fact,
  attention.

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Fullen Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform fails in
Schools

• Faulty Change Maps to be unique is not a good
  reason for change
• Complex Problems
• Symbols over substance adopt external
  innovations with only symbolic benefit CC! Not
  enough grass-roots support
• Impatient and Superficial Solutions
• Misunderstanding Resistance may be a learning
  curve issue
• Attrition of Pockets of success
• Misuse of Knowledge of Change Process

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Fullen Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform succeeds
in Schools

• Change is learning
• Change is a journey not a blueprint planning is
  continuous
• Problems are our friendsassertive
  problem-solving must take place
• Change is Resource Hungerytime
• Change requires Power to manage
• Change is Systemic interrelational, structure,
  policy, culture
• Implemented locallycannot happen from a distance

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Fullen Miles (1992) other reasons reform
succeeds in Schools

• Common language,
• Conceptual pictureof change process and goals
• Multiple stakeholders at different levels
  participate in reform process
• Culture is a priority relationships must
  improve to create conditions to share ideas
• Sharing of successes and failures
• Change is inevitable and we must learn to live
  with it.

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Berkmans UOID Theory

• Influenced by Rogers
• Berkmans User-Oriented Instructional Designers
  theory
• Identify the potential adopter
• Measure the potential adopters perceptions
• Design develop a user-friendly product
• Inform the potential adopter
• Provide post adoption support
• (Burkman in Gagne, 1987, pp 440-1) this was our
  model for the TARGET grant Line
  Coachesrelationship between developer adopter
  was critical

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Rogers (1962, 1995)

• Adoption Categories explored
• Innovators
• Early adoptersvisionary users, project oriented,
  risk takers, self-sufficient, cross-curricular
  communication can integrate
• Early majoritypragmatic users, process oriented,
  may require support, departmental
• Late majority
• Laggards

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Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM) --Hall Hord

• Hall Hord (1987) macro level theory of
  diffusion
• Bottom-up, systemic change
• Framework includes stages of concern
• 7-Stages

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7 Stages Hord

• Awareness TCEA, Research, Vendors
• InformationalLike to know more
• Personal how will it affect them?
• Managementprocesses tasks (information
  resources)
• Consequence impact students?
• Collaborationteachers cooperate with others in
  implementing innovation
• Refocusingthinking of additional alternatives
  that might work better ?ready to move on

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Strategies Addressing Concerns

• Clarify problem, arouse interest, let them
  generate possible solutions
• Give clear info about change, show how change is
  similar or diff from current
• Validate and legitimize concerns, reinforce,
  connect to supports
• Break the change into manageable steps, how to,
  give practical solutions to logistical problems

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Strategies Addressing Concerns

• 5. Arrange visits to places that use the change,
  provide positive feedback dialog
• 6. Monitor --Provide encouragement, help refine
  ideas
• 7.Develop PR campaigns, broadcast or market
  innovation--conferences

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J.M.Kellers Motivation Model for Instructional
Design

• ARCS Model
• ATTENTION arouse sustain learners curiosity
• Relevance Need to relate Instruction to
  Learners Needs
• Confidence Need to Match Learners Challenges
  to Learners Capabilities
• SatisfactionNeed to provide learner with
  Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards

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Resistance Theory

• Michael Fullens (2003) The moral imperative of
  school leadership change is messy
• Rests on a change agent
• Creating Knowledge with stakeholders builds
  Relationships which is critical
• Integrating Technology
• Moral purpose

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Resistance Theory

• Michael Fullens (2003) The moral imperative of
  school leadership change is messy
• Six-point Strategic model of transforming
  leadership
• Reshape Culture by building a community of
  professional learners capacity building
• Change the context, then you can change behavior
  move from one grade or subject
• Mutual Vision high expectations
• Disciplined Inquiry data-driven decision making
• Moral purposedesire to do the right thing the
  wish to make a difference
• Responsibility teacher leaders collaborators

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Kotters 8 Stage Change Process

• 1996-2002
• Establish a sense of urgency
• Opportunities /crisis demand change NOW
• Create a Guiding Team
• gather change agents with credibility, skills,
  authority to assist in the change
• Develop a vision Strategy
• Clear uplifting statement of goal plan
• Communicate the Change Vision
• Clear, uplifting, repeated messages

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Kotters 8 Stage Change Process

• 1996-2002
• Empower Organizational Members
• Remove obstacles, change structures
• Reward new ideas risk-taking
• Generate Short-term Wins
• Early success is critical
• Celebrate reward people
• Consolidate Gains Continue Change
• Dont let up!
• Anchor New Ways into the Culture
• Make change stick

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Lewins Change Model

• Unfreezing
• Diagnose need for change, status quo no longer
  acceptable
• Prepare people plan change
• Moving
• Implement changes
• Overcome resistance
• Refreezing
• Institutionalize new ways

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Structural Adaptation to Regain Fit

• Donaldsons SARFIT Model (1995-96)
• 5 Stages
• An organization is in fit
• There is a contingency change
• The organization is in misfit performance
  suffers
• The organization does structural adaptation
• The organization achieves a new fit and
  performance recovers

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Change Quotes

• A great many people think they are thinking when
  they are merely rearranging their prejudices
  William James
• Life is change. Growth is optional. Choose
  wisely Karen Kaiser Clark
• I cant understand why people are frightened of
  new ideas. Im afraid of the old ones. John Cage
• All progress is precarious, and the solution of
  one problem brings us face to face with another
  problem Martin Luther King, Jr.

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Change Quotes

• It isnt that they cant see the solution. It is
  that they cant see the problem. G.K. Chesterton
• I never give them hell. I just tell the truth
  and they think its hell. Harry S. Truman
• You must be the change you wish to see in the
  world. Gandhi
• Example is not the main thing in influencing
  others, its the only thing Albert Schweitzer

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Change Quotes

• I not only use all the brains I have, but all I
  can borrow. Woodrow Wilson
• You cant jump a twenty-foot chasm in two
  ten-foot leaps American Proverb
• We have to get everybody in the organization
  involved. If we do that, the best ideas rise to
  the top. Jack Welch

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Chaos Theory