Faculty of Education

1

• Faculty of Education
• Additional Qualifications
• Module 02
• Part 02
• André Samson Ph.D., c.o.

2
Overview of the Presentation Part 2

• 3. Hollands Typology
• 3.1 Origin of the theory
• 3.2 Principles of the theory
• 3.3 An interactive approach
• 3.4 Career stability and transition
• 3.5 Distortions
• 3.6 Description of the Hollands Typology
• 3.6.1 Development of personality types
• 3.6.2 Personality Types
• 3.6.3 Hypothesis related to personality
  types 3.6.4 Predictions
• 3.7 Types of environments
• 3.7.1 Hypothesis
• 3.7.2 Workplace typologies
• 3.7.3 Personalities and the workplace

3
3. Hollands Typology

• Introduction
• John L. Holland, an American psychologist who
  obtained his Ph.D. from the University of
  Minnesota
• He ended his career as an emeritus professor at
  John Hopkins University
• In 1959, John L. Holland started to develop his
  theory

4
3. Hollands Typology

• Introduction
• John L. Holland is the creator of the primary
  theory relating to career choice
• He constantly developed and improved his theory
  throughout his long successful career
• John L. Holland took pride in developing a theory
  that is simple and easy to apply
• This theory is very popular among practitioners
  and researchers and is widely used in the career
  counselling field

5
3. Hollands Typology
3.1 Origin of the Theory

• Holland elaborated his theory based on his
  experience as an academic and career counsellor
• His experience allowed him to determine how
  individuals can be regrouped into different
  categories based on their vocational types
• Other authors had already identified different
  psychological types, like Jung (1933) and Adler
  (1939)
• Holland (1997) also established a classification
  of various workplace environments in relation to
  his typology. According to him, human behaviour
  depends on both the individuals personality and
  characteristics of their environment
• Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
  Choices. Psychological Assessment Ressources,
  Inc, Lutz Florida.

6
3. Hollands Typology
3.2 Principles of the Theory
A) Vocational choice is an expression of
personality
?Vocational choice is not only a reflection
of specific aspects of personality
?This type of choice expresses who the person is
as a whole. For example, it is
important to consider their history, their
perception of reality and their social
context
B) The interest inventories are inventories of
personality
?Vocational preferences are expressions of
personality ?Individuals chose an
occupation based on their knowledge, their
personality and their aptitudes
?Therefore, vocational choice is greater than
simply using certain abilities within a
specific context. It is also a lifestyle, a way
of being ?Vocational choice is the
actualisation of personality as a whole
Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
Choices. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc,
Lutz Florida.
7
3. Hollands Typology
3.2 Principles of the Theory
C) Vocational stereotypes
?A number of stereotypes are attached to
various professions. Perception of
professions differs according to age, experience
and social status. ?Most psychometric
assessments do not take into consideration
these different perceptions. ?Individuals
could be influenced to stop their vocational
choice based on stereotypes that are
more or less valid ?It is important for a
vocational choice to be made based on a realistic
perception of various professions
D) Members of a same profession share personality
types and individual stories that are similar
?According to Holland (1997), individuals
cease to make a vocational choice because
of their personality and their personal
history ?In other words, particular demands
inherent to certain professions attract
individuals that share similar aspects when is
comes to the development of their traits
Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
Choices. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc,
Lutz Florida.
8
3. Hollands Typology
3.2 Principles of the Theory
E) Similarities found in a vocational group play
a role in the creation of a specific work
environment
?According to Hollands theory (1997),
certain vocations attract similar
personalities ?Consequently, the grouping of
common personality traits contributes to
the elaboration of a workplace climate that
reflects the amalgamation of individuals
F) Vocational satisfaction, its stability and its
development are directly attributed to the degree
of congruence between the individuals
personality and the workplace environment
?Workplace performance depends on its
setting. In other words, a workplace
environment has to meet the expectations of a
certain personality type. ?
Congruence between the individuals personality
and their workplace environment is
conducive to harmonious career
development
Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
Choices. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc,
Lutz Florida.
9
3. Hollands Typology
3.3 An Interactive Approach

• This is an interactive approach. Holland (1997)
  established links between various workplace
  contexts, individuals personalities, the career
  choice process and its development
• The goal of this interaction is to achieve a
  state of congruence between
• Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
  Choices. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc,
  Lutz Florida.

The Individuals Personality
Their Career Choice
Their Workplace Environment
10
3. Hollands Typology
3.4 Career Stability and Transition

• According to Holland (1997), stability is the
  norm
• Individuals have a tendency to opt for
  occupations that will allow them to achieve a
  level of vocational congruency
• According to Holland (1997), society does not
  promote career change, rather it constitutes a
  force of inactivity
• In other words it encourages stability
• However, social changes can create a certain
  evolution when it comes to career choice for
  example, equality between men and women in the
  workplace
• Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
  Choices. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc,
  Lutz Florida.

11
3. Hollands Typology
3.5 Distortions

• Holland (1997) notes that different variables can
  influence the dynamic of his theory
• These variables risk limiting the various choice
  possibilities. For example
• Ethnicity (racism surrounding a particular group)
• Geographical orientation
• Social class
• Physical handicaps
• Holland, John L. (1997). Making Vocational
  Choices. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc,
  Lutz Florida.

12
3. Hollands Typology
3.6 Description of Hollands Typology 3.6.1
Development of Personality Types

• Family influences, to a certain degree, the
  development of personality types. For example, a
  family that promotes artistic abilities, could
  favour the development of an artistic type
  personality
• Parents can also pass on some hereditary
  characteristics that can influence the
  development of certain personality types
• Also, the family unit is a member of a certain
  social context. This social context can also
  participate in the development of certain
  personality traits

13
3. Hollands Typology
3.6 Description of Hollands Typology 3.6.2
Personality Types

• Since the concept of careers is fundamental to
  the individuals personality, Holland first
  divided the population into six principle
  personality types
• He then based his division of the groups on the
  innate and acquired behaviours of individuals.

Artistic
Enterprising
Realistic
Investigative
Social
Conventional
14
3. Hollands Typology
Realistic

Conventional
Investigative
Enterprising
Artistic
Social
15
3. Hollands Typology
Realistic
? Like to
work with their hands, possess manual
aptitudes ? Rather conformist, ambitious,
practical, self-aware and conventional
? They look for specific suggestions in a
counselling setting ? Do not
easily express their emotions, instead they
prefer talking about activities
16
3. Hollands Typology

• Values and career objectives
• Possess traditional values and prefer to work
  within an institutional setting
• Have many ambitions and see the practical side of
  things
• Rather close minded when it comes to changing
  their belief system or their values

• Vocational preferences
• Prefer concrete occupations (e.g. carpentry)
  that are relatively solitary and do require a lot
  of interaction with people
• Their range of interests are relatively
  restricted. They limit their relations and seek
  people who share the same values, interests and
  beliefs as they do

Realistic
17
3. Hollands Typology

• Problem solving
• They use their belief system and their practical
  abilities to solve problems
• They prefer concrete and practical solutions, as
  opposed to strategic, intellectual or academic
  explanations

• Self-perception
• They see themselves as possessing technical
  abilities. They like to work with their hands,
  either with mechanical equipment or electronics
• They are conscious of their interpersonal limits,
  which is why social obligations are frustrating
  to them. This is also true for intellectual tasks
  
• They have low self-esteem. However, they do feel
  competent when it comes to their technical
  abilities

Realistic
18
3. Hollands Typology
? They like research in
various forms ? Avoid repetitive
activities ? Prefer contexts that
solicit their intelligence and require
answers ? Prefer to chose their
career path alone
Investigative
19
3. Hollands Typology

• Values and career objectives
• Their values influence them to seek academic
  activities where they can feel a sense of
  autonomy and personal independence
• They are intellectuals who like logic and can be
  ambitious. Their belief system is open
• However, family, security and friendship are
  values that are less important to them

• Vocational preference
• Prefer activities that require observation,
  systematic investigation of natural, biological,
  cultural, medical or technical phenomenons
• They seek to understand and control what is
  happening
• This type does not invest much in social or
  interpersonal activities

Investigative
20
3. Hollands Typology

• Problem solving
• Use their intellectual abilities and their
  knowledge research to solve problems at work or
  elsewhere
• Grant importance to reflection and the gathering
  of information
• Have a tendency to neglect the emotional aspects
  of certain situations

• Self-perception
• Conscious of their intellectual abilities. They
  see themselves as curious, analytic and having
  multiple interests
• They do not try to persuade others, since this
  often frustrates them
• They have a relatively high self-esteem

Investigative
21
3. Hollands Typology
Artistic
? Like
activities that allow freedom, and that are
not systematic ? Belief system is open, not
rigid at all ? Intuitive, impulsive and
uncoordinated ? Do not like to have
structure in a counselling setting
? Emotions are very important
for them when making a career choice
22
3. Hollands Typology

• Values and career objectives
• Believe aesthetics are very important. They have
  an expressive, courageous and imaginative
  personality
• Avoid conformity and servility
• Belief system is very open open to new ideas
  and to the feelings of others

• Vocational preference
• Prefer artistic activities and avoid conventional
  type activities
• Like to socialise with people who have similar
  values and belief systems as they do, and avoid
  people who do not

Artistic
23
3. Hollands Typology

• Problem solving
• Perceive the problem from an artistic angle
• Their personality traits dominate the abilities
  they use to problem solve. In other words,
  intuition, expression and originality

• Self-perception
• See themselves as expressive, open, original,
  intuitive, non conformist, uncoordinated and
  introspective
• Conscientious of their artistic and creative
  abilities. However, conventional activities could
  frustrate them.

Artistic
24
3. Hollands Typology
? Like working with people in an
educative or curative
setting ? Avoid manual labour
? Have abilities in social relations ?
Idealists, they want to help by getting engaged
socially or politically ? Have a
tendency to talk a lot, this can be a challenge
for the counsellor
Social
25
3. Hollands Typology

• Values and career objectives
• Like to serve others in a medical, institutional
  or community setting
• Want to help and believe in equal opportunities
• Are not attracted to the world of ideas or logic
• Find spiritual values important

• Vocational preference
• Prefer occupations with social requirements
• Avoid more realistic type activities
• Associate with people who share similar values
  and beliefs as they do

Social
26
3. Hollands Typology

• Problem solving
• Use their competences and social abilities to
  solve problems
• Perceive problems through a human or relational
  perspective

• Self-perception
• See themselves as liking to help and understand
  people. Aware of their teaching abilities
• Avoid abstract activities or activities that
  require patience and precision
• Belief system is relatively open. Moderately high
  Self-esteem

Social
27
3. Hollands Typology
Enterprising

• Like working with people
• mainly with the goal of
• organising or leading
• ? Like to succeed economically and
  politically
• and can sometimes seem overly confident
• ?They are energetic,
  extraverted,
• exhibitionists and optimistic
• ? Are looking for both
• power and money
• ?Can be impatient
• with the career
• counselling
• process

28
3. Hollands Typology

• Values and career objectives
• They have a traditional belief and value system
• Strive to become leaders and manage others
• They are very ambitious
• They take pride in their physical appearance and
  aim to climb the social ladder

• Vocational preference
• Prefer activities that put their business skills
  to work
• Like to develop in the business world
• Avoid activities that require research or
  investigative work. Prefer to be with people who
  share similar values and beliefs as they do

Enterprising
29
3. Hollands Typology

• Problem solving
• Measure problems based on their influence
• Their traits for business and competition
  dominate their problem solving skills

• Self-perception
• Perceive themselves as aggressive, popular and
  having good social skills. Are conscious of the
  fact that intellectual abilities or abstract
  concepts do not interest them
• Have high self-esteem and get frustrated then
  they have limited influence
• They have a closed belief system

Enterprising
30
3. Hollands Typology
? Prefer to manipulate data
in a systematic way ? Like
activities that are well-defined and have a
limited sense of initiative ? They are
conservative, inhibited, practical and
perseverant (accounting type) ? Organized
people but they rely heavily on others ?
An environment that is too free may frustrate them
Conventional
31
3. Hollands Typology

• Values and career objectives
• Believe traditional values are very important.
  Want to lead a comfortable life
• Give value to financial and business success
• Like institutional settings. Do not give much
  consideration to the imagination
• Very closed belief system

• Vocational preference
• Prefer conventional type activities like
  accounting, finances or administration
• Avoid artistic type activities
• Like to be with people who are similar to them
  and avoid people who are different

Conventional
32
3. Hollands Typology

• Problem solving
• Use their competencies to resolve problems
  relating to their workplace
• Conform to rules and procedures that are
  currently established. Try to elaborate practical
  solutions in an orderly way
• Trust authority and seek its opinion

• Self-perception
• Perceive themselves as orderly and conformists
• Conscious of their competencies in administrative
  work and their lack of artistic abilities
• Low self-esteem

Conventional
33
3. Hollands Typology
3.6 Description of Hollands Typology 3.6.3
Hypothesis Related to Personality Types

• A person does not only belong to one type
• There are variants and a multitude of
  possibilities
• Generally, an individual has one dominant type
• The personality type determines career choice
• A clear personality type helps to determine
  professional satisfaction

Social
Artistic
Enterprising
34
RIASEC Conceptual Model
Realistic
Investigative
Conventional
Artistic
Enterprising
Social
35
Realistic

• Veterinarian
• Doctor
• Mathematician
• Architect
• Biologist

• Agriculture
• Forestry
• Pilot
• Electrician
• Truck driver

Investigative
Artistic

• Dancer
• Musician
• Designer
• Writer
• Actor

• Secretary
• Mail man/woman
• Cashier
• Typist
• Accountant

Conventional

• Lawyer
• Manager
• School Principal
• Judge
• Seller

• Counsellor
• Nurse
• Social worker
• Teacher
• Librarian

Enterprising
Social
36
Men
Women
R
I
R
I
.39
.50
.06
.31
.27
.35
.32
.29
.10
.12
.10
.12
.06
.31
.13
.19
.07
.17
.19
.21
.23
.33
A
C
A
C
.07
.05
.07
.05
.13
.19
.19
.21
.23
.33
.07
.17
.33
.29
.42
.25
.40
.64
.34
.49
.33
.29
.42
.25
S
E
.46
S
E
.44
37
Study Careers preferred by doctors in their 1st
year and doctors that are graduating
38
3. Hollands Typology
ADAPTS TO THE PHYSICAL WORLD THAT SURROUNDS US
Intellectual orientation
Action orientation
Functional orientation
Creative/ expressive orientation
Social/ altruistic orientation
Social/ dominant orientation
ADAPTS TO GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS
ADAPTS TO PEOPLE
39
3. Hollands Typology
3.6 Description of Hollands Typology 3.6.4
Predictions
40
3. Hollands Typology
3.7 Types of Environments 3.7.1 Hypothesis

• There are different types of environments
• An environment is not homogeneous and perception
  can greatly differ from one person to another
• Depending on the type, each environment has
  specific demands, offers various possibilities
  and is mainly constructed of one type of person
• Therefore, depending on the environment and the
  dominant type, certain values will dominate and
  will stimulate the development of abilities

41
3. Hollands Typology
3.7 Types of Environments
Realistic Environment
Artistic Environment
Investigative Environment

• Encourages scientific problem solving
• Encourages research and requires conceptual and
  analytical competencies
• Requires autonomy, ability to work alone and to
  be self-motivated
• Human relations are secondary in this environment

• Requires mainly physical or manual abilities
• Presence of machinery or tools that require some
  type of manipulation
• Requires technical, manual or physical
  competencies and abilities

• Individuals benefit when they have room to
  manoeuvre and to manifest their creativity
• Does not follow social norms or conventions
• Likes to work in a non-structured environment

42
3. Hollands Typology
3.7 Types of Environments
Social Environment
Conventional Environment
Enterprising Environment

• Promotes flexibility and mutual comprehension
• Individuals like to help others
• People and human values are very important
• This type of environment centers on the
  well-being of individuals

• Bureaucratic setting, rules govern day to day
  activities
• Constant management and organisation

• Individuals need to manage and convince in order
  to increase profits
• Risk taking, but constant remuneration
• Setting that put a certain importance on
  appearance

43
3. Hollands Typology
3.7 Types of Environments 3.7.3 Personalities in
the Workplace

• The combination of personality types and their
  work environment allows us hypothesise that
• A certain type of environment attracts a certain
  type of person
• A harmony between the two types promotes
  stability and satisfaction
• A particular type of environment promotes certain
  behaviours
• An organisation that is well portrayed promotes a
  high degree of engagement
• Important to encourage a high level of congruence
  between the individual and their workplace
  environment
• Congruence allows integration and career
  development among individuals

44
Practical Exercises

• Dr. John Holland's Theory. Retrieved July 10,
  2009, from http//www.school.za/PILP/themes/career
  s1/RIASEC_Code.doc
• Grace, K., Brown, D. (n.d.) Life Values
  Inventory. Retrieved November 10, 2008 from
  http//www.lifevaluesinventory.com/lvi.html
• Hummanmetrics.com. (2008). Humanmetrics.
  Retrieved November 13, 2008 from
  http//www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes1.htm
• North Carolina State Occupational Information
  Coordinating Committee. (2007). Sample
  Self-Assessment Exercise. Retrieved July 10, 2009
  from http//www.soicc.state.nc.us/soicc/planning/c
  1a.htm
• Queendom.com. (2008). Queendom  The land of
  tests. Retrieved November 11, 2008 from
  http//www.queendom.com/tests/index.htm/career/ind
  ex.html

45
Practical Exercises

• Service Canada. (2008). Career Navigator Quizes.
  Retrieved July 10, 2009, from http//www.jobsetc.g
  c.ca/toolbox/quizzes/quizzes_home.do?lange
• Spods.net. (2001). The Personality Profile.
  Retrieved November 10, 2008 from
  http//www.personalityonline.com/tests/engine.html
  ?testid3
• Stephen F. Austin State University. (2007).
  Plotting Your Course Holland Type Interest Quiz.
  Retrieved July 10, 2009 from http//www2.sfasu.ed
  u/advising/Holland_Test.htm
• Testedich.de. (2008). Allthetests.com An
  exciting exploration into your personality and
  IQ. Retrieved November 10, 2008 from
  http//www.allthetests.com/  
• Rogue Community College. (2007). Holland Code
  Quiz. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from
  http//www.roguecc.edu/Counseling/HollandCodes/tes
  t.asp
• University of Minnesota. (2002). Retrieved July
  10, 2009 from http//www.class.umn.edu/choosing_a_
  major/choosingpage2.html

46
Practical Exercises

• Université dOttawa. (2008). Aptitudes, intérêts,
  valeurs, et personnalité. Retrieved November 23,
  2008, from http//www.hr.uottawa.ca/training/caree
  r/guide/01/aptitudes.php
• University of Waterloo. (n.d.). Career
  Development eManual Step 1 Self Assessment.
  Retrieved November 10, 2008 from
  http//www.cdm.uwaterloo.ca/step1.asp
• Values Survey. (n.d.) Retrieved November 10, 2008
  from http//webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/valuestest.ht
  ml
• Zeldman, J. (1999). Your Values Test. Retrieved
  November 10, 2008 from http//www.geocities.com/Ar
  ea51/1303/personality/yourvaluestest.html

47
Suggested Websites

• Castleton State College. (n.d.). Castleton Career
  Code Map. Retrieved January 10, 2007 from
  http//www.csc.vsc.edu/careers/career/home.html
• Hansen, R. S. (n.d.). Workplace Values
  Assessment Do You Know the Work Values You Most
  Want in a Job and An EmployerAnd Does Your
  Current Employment Reflect Those Values? A
  Quintessential Career. http//www.quintcareers.com
  /workplace_values.html
• James, R. K., Gilliland, B. E. (2003).
  Trait-Factor Counseling/Person xEnvironment Fit.
  http//wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/208/213
  944/trait.pdf
• Jones, L. K. (2007). Hollands Six Personality
  Types. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from
  http//www.careerkey.org/asp/your_personality/holl
  ands_6_personalitys.asp
• University of Missouri-Columbia. (2007). The
  Career Interests Game. http//career.missouri.edu/
  students/explore/thecareerinterestsgame.php

48
Suggested Websites

• National Occupational Classification (NCP 2006)
  http//www5.hrsdc.gc.ca/NOC/English/NOC/2006/Welco
  me.aspx
• New York State Department of Labor. (n.d.).
  Target your Interests. Retrieved January 10, 2007
  from http//www.nycareerzone.org/graphic/assessmen
  t/index.jsp
• University of Central Florida. (2007). University
  of Central Florida Career Services and
  Experiential Learning. Retrieved November 10,
  2008 from http//www.crc.ucf.edu/undergraduate_stu
  dents/Exploring_Majors_and_Careers/Hollannd
  _Typology/Default.asp

49
Suggested Readings

• Armstrong, P. I., Day, S. X., McVay, J. P.,
  Rounds, J. (2008). Holland's RIASEC model as and
  integrative framework for individual differences.
  Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(1), 1-18.
• Armstrong, P. I., Rounds, J. (2008). Linking
  leisure interests to the RIASEC world of work
  map. Journal of career development, 35(1), 5-22.
• Downes, M., Kroeck, K. G. (1996). Discrepancies
  between existing jobs and individual interests
  An empirical application of Holland's model.
  Journal of Vacational Behavior, 48, 107-117.
• Farh, J. L., Leong, F. T. L., Law, K. S.
  (1998). Cross-cultural validity of Holland's
  model in Hong Kong. Journal of Vocational
  Behavior, 52, 425-440.
• Gottfredson, G. D. (1999). John L. Holland's
  contributions to vocational psychology A review
  and evaluation. Journal of Voational Behavior,
  55, 15-40.

50
Suggested Readings

• Herr, E. L., Cramer, S.H. Niles S.G. (2004).
  Career Guidance and Counseling, Through the
  Lifespan Systematic Approches (Sixth edition).
  Boston Allyn and Bacon.
• Johnson, P., Nichols, C. N., Buboltz, W. C.,
  Riedesel, B. (2002). Assessing a holistic trait
  and factor approach to career development of
  college students. Journal of College Counseling,
  5, 4-14.
• Lowe, S. (2005). Integrating collectivist values
  into career counseling with Asian Americans A
  test of cultural responsiveness. Journal of
  Multicultural Counseling and Development, 33(3),
  134-145.
• Reardon, R. C., Lenz, J. G. (1999). Holland's
  theory and career assessment. Journal of
  Vocational Behavior, 55, 102-113.
• Sharf, R. S. (2002). Applying Career Development
  Theory to Counseling (Third edition). Pacific
  Grove CA Brooks and Cole. (lp. 95 to 116)

51
Suggested Readings

• Schinka, J. A., Dye, D. A., Curtiss, G. (1997).
  Correspondence between Five Factor and RIASEC
  models of personality. Journal of Personality
  Assessment, 68(2), 355-368.
• Zunker, V. G. (2002). Career Counseling Applied
  Consepts of Life Planning (Sixth edition).
  Pacific Grove CA Brooks and Cole. (p. 58 to 64)

52
References

• Botteman, A. E. (2005). Apparition et
  développement de la notion dintérêt en
  psychologie  Quelques repères historiques.
  Carriérologie, 10(1), 45-73.
• Gaudet, J. D., Mujawamariya, D., Lapointe, C.
  (2008). Les liens entre les valeurs, les
  intérêts, les aptitudes et lestime de soi des
  jeunes filles et leurs choix détudes et de
  carrière. Canadian Journal of Education, 31(1),
  187-210.
• Guédon, M-C., Savard, R. (2005). Explication
  des résultats dinventaires dintérêts aux
  clients en counselling dorientation.
  Carriérologie, 10(1), 251-269.
• Johnson, P., Nichols, C. N., Buboltz, W. C.,
  Riedesel, B. (2002). Assessing a holistic trait
  and factor approach to career development of
  college students. Journal of College Counseling,
  5, 4-14.
• Lagabrielle, C., Saubion, F. (2005). Les
  adultes confrontés au choix de formation  Une
  question dintérêt ou une question de
  conjoncture? Carriérologie, 10(1), 195-207.

53
References

• Lowe, S. (2005). Integrating collectivist values
  into career counseling with Asian Americans  A
  test of cultural responsiveness. Journal of
  Multicultural Counseling and Development, 33(3),
  134-145.
• Tétreau, B. (2005). Lessor dune psychologie des
  intérêts professionnels. Carriérologie, 10(1),
  75-118.
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