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COMMUNICATION

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Title: COMMUNICATION


1
COMMUNICATION
  • Multi-dimensional
  • Channels different pathways between sender and
    receiver.
  • Encoding selecting symbols to represent
    intended meaning.
  • Decoding deciphering symbolic content into
    intended meaning.
  • Noise disruptions both internal and external to
    the sender/receiver 1. Physical,
    2. Semantic, 3. Systematic

2
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
  • A multi-dimensional process of successfully
    transmitting a message from a sender to a
    receiver.
  • Success can vary between zero and 100.
  • Generally, the higher the success, the higher the
    effectiveness of communication.

3
SYMBOLIC INTERACTION
  • Human interaction is completely symbolic.
    Specific words are without meaning, except for
    the meaning people attribute to the words (i.e.
    Cool!).
  • Mead believes that all communication takes place
    through a symbolic language.
  • An interaction of gestures that communicates
    meaning to the other.

4
GESTURES - A gesture is the phase of the act
that causes a response from the other.
  • Two Types of Gestures
  • Sign - gesture with one meaning. All other
    animals communicate with signs ONLY.
  • Symbol - infinite meaning. Humans communication
    almost exclusively with symbols.

5
Role-Taking is an ability to put self into the
other, to interpret the meaning of a gesture.
  • Two Types of Role-Taking
  • Projection - projecting a meaning onto the
    others gesture.
  • Stereotyping - using one identifiable
    characteristic of the other to interpret meaning
    the others gesture.

6
The Basic Communication Problemsinherent and
inevitable
  • Miscommunication originates in the sender and
    involves the improper selection of symbols
    (encoding) to represent the intended meaning.
  • Misunderstanding originates in the receiver and
    involves the improper decoding of symbols in the
    message.
  • Defensiveness present in both the sender and
    receiver. If the sense of SELF is threatened the
    communication shifts away from the issue toward
    the protection of self.
  • The three combined account for over 90 of all
    conflict.

7
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
  • Transmitting a message without the use of verbal
    or written symbols.
  • Formal involves signs not symbols sign
    language, third base coach.
  • Informal involves symbols not signs body
    language, facial gestures.
  • Non-verbal communication carries over 60 of the
    meaning of verbal messages.

8
Cone of Experience
9
BODY LANGUAGE Physical gestures of the body
that convey a message to the other.
  • Emblems body gestures that can completely take
    the place of words.
  • Popular have the same meaning in more than one
    culture. (e.g. Shaking head for NO)
  • Multi-Meaning Means one thing in one culture,
    but something different in another.
  • Unique Means one thing in a culture, but
    carries no meaning in any other.

10
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS GESTURES OF THE FACE THAT
CONVEY MEANING TO THE OTHER.
  • Eye Contact conveys willingness to engage in
    communication and the level of intimacy,
    sympathy, and empathy.
  • Tie-Sign a gaze that implies connection between
    the sender and the receiver.
  • Smile passivity, affection, happiness, unease,
    etc.
  • Frown introspection, sadness, etc.

11
PROXEMIC BEHAVIOR MANAGING THE SPACE BETWEEN
OTHERS TO CONVEY A MESSAGE TO THE OTHER.
  • Edward Hall
  • Four Zones of Proxemic Behavior
  • Public 12 to 25 foot zone
  • Social 4 to 12 foot zone
  • Personal 18 inch to 4 foot zone
  • Intimate inside 18 inches

12
PROXEMIC BEHAVIOR
  • Erving Goffman
  • Personal space elliptical aura surrounding the
    self
  • Stall a space generally occupied by only one
    person
  • Use space that not in use, but still claimed
    for future use
  • Sheath objects that are in contact with the
    body
  • Turn a space that symbolic represents the
    person
  • Eye contact a gaze that conveys a desire to
    move closer.

13
Communication Improvement Techniques
  • Brainstorming A process designed to stimulate
    divergent thinking.
  • Divergent thinking calls for increased
    originality, cognitive flexibility, and
    associative thinking skills.
  • Brainstorming sound very easy, but requires
    practice and commitment to be successful.

14
The Rules of Brainstorming
  • Brainstorming is actually a two phase process.
    Three rules are associated with phase one.
  • Expressive Rule Every member of the group must
    commit themselves to expressing ANY idea that
    comes to mind. No matter how bizarre or weird.
  • No Evaluation Rule There is no evaluation of
    ideas as the ideas are being expressed. There
    should be no verbal comment, no facial
    expressions, and no body language that is
    evaluative. Criticism is not tolerated!
  • Quantity Rule The goal of phase one is to
    maximize the number of ideas expressed. The
    greater the number of ideas the better the
    brainstorming session.

15
Brainstorming Phase Two
  • Building Rule The only rule in phase two is
    building.
  • Group members are encouraged to modify, extend,
    or combine ideas listed in any creative way
    possible.
  • Participants should draw from one another's ideas
    as much as possible.

16
Nominal Group Technique
  • NGT is a technique designed to allow each member
    of the group develop their own line of reasoning,
    without input or constraint from others.
  • NGT is a four phase process that involves
    creating individual ideas and then combining
    those ideas to generate group consensus.

17
Phase One
  • The Idea Phase After introducing and explaining
    the specifics of the problem each group member
    silently generates ideas.
  • Each member work independently using a separate
    sheet of paper to list as many ideas as possible.
  • The idea phase lasts between 10 and 30 minutes.

18
Phase Two
  • Round-robin Phase In phase two each member
    reads his/her list using a shortened phase (three
    word max).
  • The ideas are listed so that the entire group can
    see each idea.
  • There is no explanation given during the
    round-robin, and no comments from other group
    members.

19
Phase Three
  • Discussion Phase Once all ideas have been
    listed, the group begins a no holds barred dialog
    regarding each idea.
  • Criticisms, modifications, disagreements are all
    part of phase three. Any changes in the listed
    ideas suggested must receive group support.
  • The goal of phase three is to openly discuss each
    idea using as much time as necessary.

20
Phase Four
  • Voting Phase The final phase is a voting
    process.
  • Each group member selects the top three or five
    ideas that best resolve the problem.
  • The votes are tallied using a pre-specified
    summing method (1st place vote worth 3 points, 2d
    worth 2, 3rd worth 1).
  • The top ideas are then combined into a solution
    strategy that the group implements.

21
Delphi Technique
  • Delphi technique is designed to be used in
    situations where group members can not be in the
    same place at the same time.
  • The technique uses computers to develop
    consensus.
  • The technique uses the questionnaire to conduct
    the problem solving effort, therefore the
    facilitator should be skilled at questionnaire
    development.

22
First Iteration
  • First the facilitator sends out an open ended
    question to all member of the group.
  • The question should be very broad, but still
    encompass the heart of the problem.
  • How can we improve group efficiency?

23
Second Iteration
  • Based on each response to the first iteration a
    new questionnaire is created.
  • Each response from each group member is used to
    construct an exhaustive questionnaire that
    explores as many solutions possible.
  • Solutions might be more pay, better supervision,
    better benefits, etc., etc.,

24
Third Iteration
  • Based on the responses to the second iteration, a
    new shorter questionnaire is developed.
  • The third iteration uses only the most highly
    received ideas from the second iteration.
  • The questionnaires of continuously revised until
    one (or a few) idea emerges as a solution
    strategy.

25
Synetics Theory
  • Designed to be an improvement over the basic
    flaws of brainstorming.
  • Synetics uses the same rules as brainstorming,
    but adds four features.
  • Spectrum Analysis a commitment to examine each
    idea from all sides of the issue.
  • Wishing group members are asked to express
    ideas as wishes rather than statements. Wishing
    reduces the apprehension over evaluation.
  • Excursions Whenever ideas begin to run dry the
    group takes a break from the process. The goal
    is a) get closer to problem, or b) give the mind
    rest.
  • Direct Analogy members are encouraged to use
    analogies to expand their perspective on the idea
    and the problem.

26
Leadership
  • A Process that Involves Being an Influencer and
    Being Influenced

27
Leadership as Process
  • A process where one individual is permitted to
    influence and motivate others in order to
    accomplish group goals.

28
Leadership a two sided coin
  • Relationship Leadership
  • Good leaders must address the feelings,
    attitudes, and satisfaction needs of the members.
  • Even if the group exists solely to complete a
    task the good leader must take steps to meet
    members personal needs.

29
Leadership Side Two
  • Task Leadership
  • Good leaders must guide the group to establish
    communication networks, coordinate member
    actions, solve problems, and providing feedback.

30
Types of Leadership
  • Leadership involves guidance of others in their
    pursuits, often by organizing, directing,
    coordinating, supporting, and motivating their
    efforts.
  • Reciprocal
  • Transactional
  • Transformational
  • Cooperative
  • Adaptive

31
Reciprocal Leaders
  • The leader does not just influence the followers,
    rather the relations are mutual
  • The leader learns skills and qualities from the
    followers
  • The followers learn skills and qualities from the
    leader
  • Leadership cannot be understood independently of
    the followers

32
Transactional Leaders
  • Leader and followers work together
  • Exchange transaction of time, energy, and skill
  • Each benefits by heightened rewards

33
Transformational Leaders
  • Leader increase followers motivation
  • Increases confidence
  • Increases satisfaction by uniting members
  • The followers beliefs, values and norms are
    changed to better fit the situation

34
Cooperative Leaders
  • A process of legitimate influence rather than
    sheer power
  • Usually the most influential person becomes the
    group leader
  • The group sets the goal and the leader sets the
    example

35
Adaptive Leader
  • Leader assumes responsibility for organizing
    individual efforts to accomplish goals
  • Leader becomes the coordination point for effort
  • Leader is responsible for changing tactics and
    strategies for achieving goals

36
Who Will Lead?
  • Demographic background of leaders
  • Height, weight, and age
  • Ethnicity
  • Sex Bias against women (even though women
    possess more of the skills needed to be a
    successful leader).
  • Expectation States Theory members general
    beliefs about the qualities of leaders
  • Eaglys Social Role Theory followers intuitive
    expectations about sex roles are not consistent
    with leadership expectations think leader,
    think male

37
Why Do Some Leaders Succeed and Others Fail?
  • Fiedler's Contingency Model Effectiveness
    depends on the leaders' motivational style and
    the favorability of the situation.
  • Motivation style task motivated or relationship
    motivated.
  • Situational favorability is determined by
    leader-member relations, the task structure, and
    the leader's power

38
Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale
  • The LPC is a questionnaire that helps establish
    your leadership style
  • Think of the worker you have had the most
    difficulty working with in the past.
  • Rate that person on each attribute
  • 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
  • PleasantUnpleasant
  • 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
  • Friendly.Unfriendly
  • High scores are relationship leaders

39
Situational Control
  • If the leader has situational control they can be
    certain that decisions, actions, and suggestions
    will be carried out
  • Three factor determine the level of SC
  • Leader member relations cohesiveness equals
    good relations
  • Task structure if the task is simple and
    results can be measure the structure is high
  • Position power If leader can control salary,
    rewards, punishments then power is high

40
Prediction
  • Task-motivated (low-LPC) leaders are most
    effective in situations that are either extremely
    unfavorable or extremely favorable
  • Relationship motivated leaders are most effective
    in situations in the middle of the continuum

41
Conclusions
  • No one style or form of leadership is best
  • A style that worked in one situation may be
    totally ineffective in another
  • No one is a good leader in all situations
  • Rather a good leader is someone who has the
    ability to change their leadership style to fit
    the group and situation

42
Interpersonal Conflict
43
What is Conflict?
  • Conflict is the tension that results from
    incompatible values or norms.
  • Conflict doesnt mean just me fighting. It means
    a tension or struggle between people
  • The sequence of conflict generally flows through
    five stages
  • Not all conflict follows these stages in the same
    way, because conflict can be cut short at any
    point

44
Types of Conflict
  • Personal Conflict interpersonal discord that
    occurs when group members dislike each other.
  • Substantive Conflict disagreements over issues
    that are relevant to the groups real goals.
  • Procedural Conflict Disagreements over the
    methods the group should use to complete a basic
    task.

45
Social Dilemmas
  • Social dilemmas refer to personal situations
    where the person is forced to choose between
    maximizing personal outcomes and maximizing the
    groups outcomes.
  • Equality norms
  • Rules for dividing rewards (or costs) equally to
    all members of the group.
  • Equity norms
  • Rules for dividing rewards (or costs) to members
    in proportion to their individual inputs.
  • Social traps
  • Situations that tempt an individual to act in a
    way that benefits them, but is detrimental to the
    group and the person in the long run.

46
Conflict andRelationship Satisfaction
  • Partners who use an intimate, nonaggressive, yet
    confrontational method of conflict resolution
    report highest levels of relationship satisfaction

47
The Five Stages of Conflict
  • 1. Disagreement
  • 2. Confrontation
  • 3. Escalation
  • 4. De-escalation
  • 5. Resolution

48
Disagreement During the first stage of conflict
members recognize that a difference in values or
norms exists. Generally, there is only a
difference, not an incompatibility. Many times
the initial conflicts can be revealed through
discussion as False Conflict or Contingent
Conflict.
  • False Conflict is where the conflict is merely a
    misunderstanding (miscommunication/defensive
    communication). If there is a lack of
    communication a false conflict can become real.
  • Contingent conflict is a type that arises over
    issues that are
  • easily resolved without increased tension. Many
    disputes
  • are dependent on some minor feature of the
    situation.

49
Confrontation - Confrontation exists when the
values or norms of one group member are
incompatible with another group member.
  • During confrontation three different
    social-psychological processes are set into
    motion.
  • 1. Commitment intensification
  • 2. Tension building
  • 3. Coalition forming

50
Commitment Intensification
  • Being made to listen to the argument of someone
    else intensifies your commitment to your
    position.
  • When you actually begin actions against the
    argument, your commitment is further intensified
    through self perception.
  • Two other processes that are involved are
    rationalization and reactance (established
    freedom).

51
Tension Building - The tension that exists
becomes the dominant feature of the conflict.
  • Tension building is characterized by an inability
    to discuss or think about the topic or problem.
  • Tension becomes involved in every aspect of life
    with the other.
  • Some people feel like theyre walking on
    eggshells.
  • Avoidance is the rule.

52
Coalition Formation
  • As conflict continues the individuals seek to
    form subgroups for needed social support.
  • The person retreats to some circle of
  • friends/relatives for comfort and support.
  • The group supports and reifies the persons
  • definition of the situation.

53
Escalation the incompatibilities have become
greater, and the people are father apart than at
the beginning of the conflict.
  • Conflict that now begins to spiral and take-up on
    new and as yet undiscovered issues.
  • Conflict leads to more conflict leading to more
    conflict.
  • Persuasion is replaced by coercion.
  • Coercion is replaced by threats.
  • Threats are replaced by aggression.
  • Aggression is replaced by violence.

54
Escalation
  • Misunderstanding and distrust are present
  • The people move away from cooperative responses
    and become opponents, which increases the
    escalation.
  • Two important social psychological processes play
    a role in the increasing conflict Frustration
    aggression theory and the norm of reciprocity.

55
Escalation
  • Frustration aggression theory.
  • Every frustration produces an aggressive
    behavior.
  • Three hypotheses have been supported by research.
  • The greater the frustration, the greater the
    aggressive response.
  • The shorter the time between the frustration and
    the aggressive response, the greater the
    aggressive response.
  • The more similar the object of aggression is to
    the object of frustration, the greater the
    aggression displayed.

56
Escalation
  • The norm of reciprocity - do unto others as they
    do unto you.
  • Norms of reciprocity encourage the escalation of
    conflict.
  • Generally norms of reciprocity lead to a
    behavioral assimilation, where members match the
    behavior displayed by those they are interacting
    with.
  • Negative reciprocity vs. Positive reciprocity.

57
  • De-escalation is reversing the direction of the
    spiral of conflict.
  • There are two basic approaches to de-escalating
    conflict
  • 1. Negotiation
  • 2. Intervention

58
Negotiation
  • Negotiation is effective when opposing people
    believe each would benefit from a solution.
  • The goal of negotiation is to focus the dialogue
    on the specific issues of conflict.
  • In negotiation there are integrative issues and
    distributive issues.
  • Integrative refers to issues that benefit all
    parties.
  • Distributive refers to issues where one party
    will benefit if the other makes a concession.

59
Intervention
  • The process of bringing in a third, neutral
    party, to the conflict.
  • Outside parties help clarify the root of the
    problem.
  • The intervener divides issues into integrative
    and distributive.
  • Discussion is directed first toward the
    integrative issues.
  • Integrative issues build trust and trust help
    resolve distributive issues.
  • Intervention allows conflicting parties to make
    concessions without embarrassment.

60
Resolution
  • 1. One party can withdraw their
  • demand.
  • 2. One party can impose its views.
  • 3. Both parties can compromise.
  • 4. One party can convince the other of
  • Rightness.
  • 5. The group can dissolve.
  • None represent true resolution and only
    contribute to accumulation of conflict.

61
Conflict is Inherent and Inevitable in
Relationships
  • We all have unique perception of the world.
  • Yet we all share a world in common.
  • One persons perceptions about things are
    sometimes very much different from others
    perceptions.
  • Discussing issues which are most important, are
    the most difficult.
  • 1. Love.
  • 2. Death.
  • 3. Perceptions are idiosyncratic.

62
Accumulation of Conflict
  • Conflict that is not resolved accumulates over
    time.
  • As the conflict over important matters (that we
    cant talk about) accumulates, conflict about
    trivial matters (that we can talk about)
    increases.
  • Over time so much conflict can accumulate that
    resolving each issue causes emotional damage.

63
Dialectics of Interpersonal Conflict Resolution
  • Dialectics is one of the oldest forms of logic.
  • For every idea (thesis) there is a counter idea
    (antithesis).
  • If the thesis and antithesis compete, there is
    never true resolution and conflict can go on
    indefinitely.

64
Using the Dialectical Conflict Resolution Method
  • Cooperation is the key to dialectical conflict
    resolution.
  • The thesis and antithesis must cooperate to
    develop a new idea (synthesis).

65
Four Steps To Resolve Conflict
  • Admit the tension.
  • 2. Ask your partner for help.
  • 3. Assume conflict accumulation.
  • 4. Cooperate in planning a solution strategy.

66
Feelings vs. Judgments
  • Communication of judgment leads to defensiveness
    and escalation
  • A judgment is a feeling that is inadequately
    understood or inadequately expressed
  • Friends or intimate partners want to know our
    feelings
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