COMMUNICATION

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COMMUNICATION

• Multi-dimensional
• Channels different pathways between sender and
  receiver.
• Encoding selecting symbols to represent
  intended meaning.
• Decoding deciphering symbolic content into
  intended meaning.
• Noise disruptions both internal and external to
  the sender/receiver 1. Physical,
  2. Semantic, 3. Systematic

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WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

• A multi-dimensional process of successfully
  transmitting a message from a sender to a
  receiver.
• Success can vary between zero and 100.
• Generally, the higher the success, the higher the
  effectiveness of communication.

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SYMBOLIC INTERACTION

• Human interaction is completely symbolic.
  Specific words are without meaning, except for
  the meaning people attribute to the words (i.e.
  Cool!).
• Mead believes that all communication takes place
  through a symbolic language.
• An interaction of gestures that communicates
  meaning to the other.

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GESTURES - A gesture is the phase of the act
that causes a response from the other.

• Two Types of Gestures
• Sign - gesture with one meaning. All other
  animals communicate with signs ONLY.
• Symbol - infinite meaning. Humans communication
  almost exclusively with symbols.

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Role-Taking is an ability to put self into the
other, to interpret the meaning of a gesture.

• Two Types of Role-Taking
• Projection - projecting a meaning onto the
  others gesture.
• Stereotyping - using one identifiable
  characteristic of the other to interpret meaning
  the others gesture.

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The Basic Communication Problemsinherent and
inevitable

• Miscommunication originates in the sender and
  involves the improper selection of symbols
  (encoding) to represent the intended meaning.
• Misunderstanding originates in the receiver and
  involves the improper decoding of symbols in the
  message.
• Defensiveness present in both the sender and
  receiver. If the sense of SELF is threatened the
  communication shifts away from the issue toward
  the protection of self.
• The three combined account for over 90 of all
  conflict.

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NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

• Transmitting a message without the use of verbal
  or written symbols.
• Formal involves signs not symbols sign
  language, third base coach.
• Informal involves symbols not signs body
  language, facial gestures.
• Non-verbal communication carries over 60 of the
  meaning of verbal messages.

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Cone of Experience
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BODY LANGUAGE Physical gestures of the body
that convey a message to the other.

• Emblems body gestures that can completely take
  the place of words.
• Popular have the same meaning in more than one
  culture. (e.g. Shaking head for NO)
• Multi-Meaning Means one thing in one culture,
  but something different in another.
• Unique Means one thing in a culture, but
  carries no meaning in any other.

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FACIAL EXPRESSIONS GESTURES OF THE FACE THAT
CONVEY MEANING TO THE OTHER.

• Eye Contact conveys willingness to engage in
  communication and the level of intimacy,
  sympathy, and empathy.
• Tie-Sign a gaze that implies connection between
  the sender and the receiver.
• Smile passivity, affection, happiness, unease,
  etc.
• Frown introspection, sadness, etc.

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PROXEMIC BEHAVIOR MANAGING THE SPACE BETWEEN
OTHERS TO CONVEY A MESSAGE TO THE OTHER.

• Edward Hall
• Four Zones of Proxemic Behavior
• Public 12 to 25 foot zone
• Social 4 to 12 foot zone
• Personal 18 inch to 4 foot zone
• Intimate inside 18 inches

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PROXEMIC BEHAVIOR

• Erving Goffman
• Personal space elliptical aura surrounding the
  self
• Stall a space generally occupied by only one
  person
• Use space that not in use, but still claimed
  for future use
• Sheath objects that are in contact with the
  body
• Turn a space that symbolic represents the
  person
• Eye contact a gaze that conveys a desire to
  move closer.

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Communication Improvement Techniques

• Brainstorming A process designed to stimulate
  divergent thinking.
• Divergent thinking calls for increased
  originality, cognitive flexibility, and
  associative thinking skills.
• Brainstorming sound very easy, but requires
  practice and commitment to be successful.

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The Rules of Brainstorming

• Brainstorming is actually a two phase process.
  Three rules are associated with phase one.
• Expressive Rule Every member of the group must
  commit themselves to expressing ANY idea that
  comes to mind. No matter how bizarre or weird.
• No Evaluation Rule There is no evaluation of
  ideas as the ideas are being expressed. There
  should be no verbal comment, no facial
  expressions, and no body language that is
  evaluative. Criticism is not tolerated!
• Quantity Rule The goal of phase one is to
  maximize the number of ideas expressed. The
  greater the number of ideas the better the
  brainstorming session.

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Brainstorming Phase Two

• Building Rule The only rule in phase two is
  building.
• Group members are encouraged to modify, extend,
  or combine ideas listed in any creative way
  possible.
• Participants should draw from one another's ideas
  as much as possible.

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Nominal Group Technique

• NGT is a technique designed to allow each member
  of the group develop their own line of reasoning,
  without input or constraint from others.
• NGT is a four phase process that involves
  creating individual ideas and then combining
  those ideas to generate group consensus.

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Phase One

• The Idea Phase After introducing and explaining
  the specifics of the problem each group member
  silently generates ideas.
• Each member work independently using a separate
  sheet of paper to list as many ideas as possible.
• The idea phase lasts between 10 and 30 minutes.

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Phase Two

• Round-robin Phase In phase two each member
  reads his/her list using a shortened phase (three
  word max).
• The ideas are listed so that the entire group can
  see each idea.
• There is no explanation given during the
  round-robin, and no comments from other group
  members.

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Phase Three

• Discussion Phase Once all ideas have been
  listed, the group begins a no holds barred dialog
  regarding each idea.
• Criticisms, modifications, disagreements are all
  part of phase three. Any changes in the listed
  ideas suggested must receive group support.
• The goal of phase three is to openly discuss each
  idea using as much time as necessary.

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Phase Four

• Voting Phase The final phase is a voting
  process.
• Each group member selects the top three or five
  ideas that best resolve the problem.
• The votes are tallied using a pre-specified
  summing method (1st place vote worth 3 points, 2d
  worth 2, 3rd worth 1).
• The top ideas are then combined into a solution
  strategy that the group implements.

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Delphi Technique

• Delphi technique is designed to be used in
  situations where group members can not be in the
  same place at the same time.
• The technique uses computers to develop
  consensus.
• The technique uses the questionnaire to conduct
  the problem solving effort, therefore the
  facilitator should be skilled at questionnaire
  development.

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First Iteration

• First the facilitator sends out an open ended
  question to all member of the group.
• The question should be very broad, but still
  encompass the heart of the problem.
• How can we improve group efficiency?

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Second Iteration

• Based on each response to the first iteration a
  new questionnaire is created.
• Each response from each group member is used to
  construct an exhaustive questionnaire that
  explores as many solutions possible.
• Solutions might be more pay, better supervision,
  better benefits, etc., etc.,

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Third Iteration

• Based on the responses to the second iteration, a
  new shorter questionnaire is developed.
• The third iteration uses only the most highly
  received ideas from the second iteration.
• The questionnaires of continuously revised until
  one (or a few) idea emerges as a solution
  strategy.

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Synetics Theory

• Designed to be an improvement over the basic
  flaws of brainstorming.
• Synetics uses the same rules as brainstorming,
  but adds four features.
• Spectrum Analysis a commitment to examine each
  idea from all sides of the issue.
• Wishing group members are asked to express
  ideas as wishes rather than statements. Wishing
  reduces the apprehension over evaluation.
• Excursions Whenever ideas begin to run dry the
  group takes a break from the process. The goal
  is a) get closer to problem, or b) give the mind
  rest.
• Direct Analogy members are encouraged to use
  analogies to expand their perspective on the idea
  and the problem.

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Leadership

• A Process that Involves Being an Influencer and
  Being Influenced

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Leadership as Process

• A process where one individual is permitted to
  influence and motivate others in order to
  accomplish group goals.

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Leadership a two sided coin

• Relationship Leadership
• Good leaders must address the feelings,
  attitudes, and satisfaction needs of the members.
• Even if the group exists solely to complete a
  task the good leader must take steps to meet
  members personal needs.

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Leadership Side Two

• Task Leadership
• Good leaders must guide the group to establish
  communication networks, coordinate member
  actions, solve problems, and providing feedback.

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Types of Leadership

• Leadership involves guidance of others in their
  pursuits, often by organizing, directing,
  coordinating, supporting, and motivating their
  efforts.
• Reciprocal
• Transactional
• Transformational
• Cooperative
• Adaptive

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Reciprocal Leaders

• The leader does not just influence the followers,
  rather the relations are mutual
• The leader learns skills and qualities from the
  followers
• The followers learn skills and qualities from the
  leader
• Leadership cannot be understood independently of
  the followers

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Transactional Leaders

• Leader and followers work together
• Exchange transaction of time, energy, and skill
• Each benefits by heightened rewards

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Transformational Leaders

• Leader increase followers motivation
• Increases confidence
• Increases satisfaction by uniting members
• The followers beliefs, values and norms are
  changed to better fit the situation

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Cooperative Leaders

• A process of legitimate influence rather than
  sheer power
• Usually the most influential person becomes the
  group leader
• The group sets the goal and the leader sets the
  example

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Adaptive Leader

• Leader assumes responsibility for organizing
  individual efforts to accomplish goals
• Leader becomes the coordination point for effort
• Leader is responsible for changing tactics and
  strategies for achieving goals

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Who Will Lead?

• Demographic background of leaders
• Height, weight, and age
• Ethnicity
• Sex Bias against women (even though women
  possess more of the skills needed to be a
  successful leader).
• Expectation States Theory members general
  beliefs about the qualities of leaders
• Eaglys Social Role Theory followers intuitive
  expectations about sex roles are not consistent
  with leadership expectations think leader,
  think male

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Why Do Some Leaders Succeed and Others Fail?

• Fiedler's Contingency Model Effectiveness
  depends on the leaders' motivational style and
  the favorability of the situation.
• Motivation style task motivated or relationship
  motivated.
• Situational favorability is determined by
  leader-member relations, the task structure, and
  the leader's power

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Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale

• The LPC is a questionnaire that helps establish
  your leadership style
• Think of the worker you have had the most
  difficulty working with in the past.
• Rate that person on each attribute
• 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
• PleasantUnpleasant
• 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
• Friendly.Unfriendly
• High scores are relationship leaders

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Situational Control

• If the leader has situational control they can be
  certain that decisions, actions, and suggestions
  will be carried out
• Three factor determine the level of SC
• Leader member relations cohesiveness equals
  good relations
• Task structure if the task is simple and
  results can be measure the structure is high
• Position power If leader can control salary,
  rewards, punishments then power is high

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Prediction

• Task-motivated (low-LPC) leaders are most
  effective in situations that are either extremely
  unfavorable or extremely favorable
• Relationship motivated leaders are most effective
  in situations in the middle of the continuum

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Conclusions

• No one style or form of leadership is best
• A style that worked in one situation may be
  totally ineffective in another
• No one is a good leader in all situations
• Rather a good leader is someone who has the
  ability to change their leadership style to fit
  the group and situation

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Interpersonal Conflict
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What is Conflict?

• Conflict is the tension that results from
  incompatible values or norms.
• Conflict doesnt mean just me fighting. It means
  a tension or struggle between people
• The sequence of conflict generally flows through
  five stages
• Not all conflict follows these stages in the same
  way, because conflict can be cut short at any
  point

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Types of Conflict

• Personal Conflict interpersonal discord that
  occurs when group members dislike each other.
• Substantive Conflict disagreements over issues
  that are relevant to the groups real goals.
• Procedural Conflict Disagreements over the
  methods the group should use to complete a basic
  task.

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Social Dilemmas

• Social dilemmas refer to personal situations
  where the person is forced to choose between
  maximizing personal outcomes and maximizing the
  groups outcomes.
• Equality norms
• Rules for dividing rewards (or costs) equally to
  all members of the group.
• Equity norms
• Rules for dividing rewards (or costs) to members
  in proportion to their individual inputs.
• Social traps
• Situations that tempt an individual to act in a
  way that benefits them, but is detrimental to the
  group and the person in the long run.

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Conflict andRelationship Satisfaction

• Partners who use an intimate, nonaggressive, yet
  confrontational method of conflict resolution
  report highest levels of relationship satisfaction

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The Five Stages of Conflict

• 1. Disagreement
• 2. Confrontation
• 3. Escalation
• 4. De-escalation
• 5. Resolution

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Disagreement During the first stage of conflict
members recognize that a difference in values or
norms exists. Generally, there is only a
difference, not an incompatibility. Many times
the initial conflicts can be revealed through
discussion as False Conflict or Contingent
Conflict.

• False Conflict is where the conflict is merely a
  misunderstanding (miscommunication/defensive
  communication). If there is a lack of
  communication a false conflict can become real.
• Contingent conflict is a type that arises over
  issues that are
• easily resolved without increased tension. Many
  disputes
• are dependent on some minor feature of the
  situation.

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Confrontation - Confrontation exists when the
values or norms of one group member are
incompatible with another group member.

• During confrontation three different
  social-psychological processes are set into
  motion.
• 1. Commitment intensification
• 2. Tension building
• 3. Coalition forming

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Commitment Intensification

• Being made to listen to the argument of someone
  else intensifies your commitment to your
  position.
• When you actually begin actions against the
  argument, your commitment is further intensified
  through self perception.
• Two other processes that are involved are
  rationalization and reactance (established
  freedom).

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Tension Building - The tension that exists
becomes the dominant feature of the conflict.

• Tension building is characterized by an inability
  to discuss or think about the topic or problem.
• Tension becomes involved in every aspect of life
  with the other.
• Some people feel like theyre walking on
  eggshells.
• Avoidance is the rule.

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Coalition Formation

• As conflict continues the individuals seek to
  form subgroups for needed social support.
• The person retreats to some circle of
• friends/relatives for comfort and support.
• The group supports and reifies the persons
• definition of the situation.

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Escalation the incompatibilities have become
greater, and the people are father apart than at
the beginning of the conflict.

• Conflict that now begins to spiral and take-up on
  new and as yet undiscovered issues.
• Conflict leads to more conflict leading to more
  conflict.
• Persuasion is replaced by coercion.
• Coercion is replaced by threats.
• Threats are replaced by aggression.
• Aggression is replaced by violence.

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Escalation

• Misunderstanding and distrust are present
• The people move away from cooperative responses
  and become opponents, which increases the
  escalation.
• Two important social psychological processes play
  a role in the increasing conflict Frustration
  aggression theory and the norm of reciprocity.

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Escalation

• Frustration aggression theory.
• Every frustration produces an aggressive
  behavior.
• Three hypotheses have been supported by research.
• The greater the frustration, the greater the
  aggressive response.
• The shorter the time between the frustration and
  the aggressive response, the greater the
  aggressive response.
• The more similar the object of aggression is to
  the object of frustration, the greater the
  aggression displayed.

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Escalation

• The norm of reciprocity - do unto others as they
  do unto you.
• Norms of reciprocity encourage the escalation of
  conflict.
• Generally norms of reciprocity lead to a
  behavioral assimilation, where members match the
  behavior displayed by those they are interacting
  with.
• Negative reciprocity vs. Positive reciprocity.

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• De-escalation is reversing the direction of the
  spiral of conflict.

• There are two basic approaches to de-escalating
  conflict
• 1. Negotiation
• 2. Intervention

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Negotiation

• Negotiation is effective when opposing people
  believe each would benefit from a solution.
• The goal of negotiation is to focus the dialogue
  on the specific issues of conflict.
• In negotiation there are integrative issues and
  distributive issues.
• Integrative refers to issues that benefit all
  parties.
• Distributive refers to issues where one party
  will benefit if the other makes a concession.

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Intervention

• The process of bringing in a third, neutral
  party, to the conflict.
• Outside parties help clarify the root of the
  problem.
• The intervener divides issues into integrative
  and distributive.
• Discussion is directed first toward the
  integrative issues.
• Integrative issues build trust and trust help
  resolve distributive issues.
• Intervention allows conflicting parties to make
  concessions without embarrassment.

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Resolution

• 1. One party can withdraw their
• demand.
• 2. One party can impose its views.
• 3. Both parties can compromise.
• 4. One party can convince the other of
• Rightness.
• 5. The group can dissolve.
• None represent true resolution and only
  contribute to accumulation of conflict.

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Conflict is Inherent and Inevitable in
Relationships

• We all have unique perception of the world.
• Yet we all share a world in common.
• One persons perceptions about things are
  sometimes very much different from others
  perceptions.
• Discussing issues which are most important, are
  the most difficult.
• 1. Love.
• 2. Death.
• 3. Perceptions are idiosyncratic.

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Accumulation of Conflict

• Conflict that is not resolved accumulates over
  time.
• As the conflict over important matters (that we
  cant talk about) accumulates, conflict about
  trivial matters (that we can talk about)
  increases.
• Over time so much conflict can accumulate that
  resolving each issue causes emotional damage.

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Dialectics of Interpersonal Conflict Resolution

• Dialectics is one of the oldest forms of logic.
• For every idea (thesis) there is a counter idea
  (antithesis).
• If the thesis and antithesis compete, there is
  never true resolution and conflict can go on
  indefinitely.

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Using the Dialectical Conflict Resolution Method

• Cooperation is the key to dialectical conflict
  resolution.
• The thesis and antithesis must cooperate to
  develop a new idea (synthesis).

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Four Steps To Resolve Conflict

• Admit the tension.
• 2. Ask your partner for help.
• 3. Assume conflict accumulation.
• 4. Cooperate in planning a solution strategy.

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Feelings vs. Judgments

• Communication of judgment leads to defensiveness
  and escalation
• A judgment is a feeling that is inadequately
  understood or inadequately expressed
• Friends or intimate partners want to know our
  feelings