Long-Term Memory

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Long-Term Memory

• Introduction
• STM versus LTM
• Episodic Memory
• Semantic Memory
• Procedural Memory
• Encoding in Long-Term Memory
• Depth of Processing (or Levels of Processing)
• Self Reference Effect
• Encoding Specificity Principle
• Emotions, Moods, and Memory

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Long-Term Memory 2

• Retrieval in Long-Term Memory
• Explicit versus Implicit Memory
• Very Long-Term Memory
• Expertise
• Amnesia
• Autobiographical Memory
• Flashbulb Memories
• Schemas Autobiographical Memory
• Source Monitoring
• Eyewitness Testimony

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Tulvings Memory Model

• Episodic
• Semantic
• Procedural

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Encoding in LTM

• Levels (depth) of processing
• Self-Reference Effect
• Encoding Specificity Principle
• Emotion and Memory
• Mood and Memory

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Levels of Processing Framework

• Craik Lockhart (1972)
• Type of Processing
• Physical Processing gt shallow
• Meaningful Processing gt deep
• Trace byproduct of processing
• Deeper processing leads to more durable traces

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Levels of Processing Demonstration
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Levels of Processing Demo Picture
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Maintenance Rehearsal vs.Elaborative Rehearsal
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Research on LOP and Similar Themes

• Tulving (1975)
• Generation Effect (1978)
• e.g. light d_ _ k (generation)
• vs.
• light dark (read)
• Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)

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Judge how wide the persons nose is
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Picture of Face with Narrow Nose
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Picture of Face with Wide Nose
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Judge how honest this face is
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Explanations

• Distinctiveness
• Elaboration

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Self-Reference Effect

• Rogers, Kuiper, Kirker (1997)
• Process list of words
• Physical characteristics
• Acoustic characteristics
• Semantic characteristics
• Self - (reference)
• Robust effect
• Symons Johnson (1997)
• Meta-analysis
• Explanations

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Rogers, et. al., 1977
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Revisions to LOP

• Moscovitch Craik (1975)
• -Encoding Specificity Principle
• Bransford Franks
• - Transfer Appropriate Processing

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Effects of Context

• Geiselman Glenny (1977)
• Outshining hypothesis

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Effects of Context

• Baddeley - scuba diving
• Remembering names - faces as contextual cues
• Practical Application - imaginary reinstatement

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Geiselman Glenny (1997)
Encoding (Imagined)
female voice
male voice
Test (Actual Speaker)
male
female
male
female
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Geiselman Glenny Results
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How can we use theEncoding Specificity
Principle to improve memory for events?
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Mood Memory

• Memory for items differing in emotion
• Pollyanna Principle
• Mood Congruence
• - individual differences studies
• - experimental manipulation of moods
• Mood-State Dependence
• - Claudia Ucros (1989)
• - meta-analysis
• - other variables

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Study each of the words that appear

• Picture
• Commerce
• Motion
• Village
• Vessel
• Window
• Number
• Reindeer

Custom Fellow Advice Dozen Flower Kitchen Bookstor
e
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Explicit Memory Measures
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Implicit Memory Measures
Picture, Commerce, Motion, Village,Vessel,Window,
Number, Reindeer, Custom, Fellow, Advice, Dozen,
Flower, Kitchen, Bookstore
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Explicit vs Implicit Measures of Memory

• Explicit memory measures
• recall
• recognition
• Implicit memory measures
• Word fragment completion
• Stem completion
• Repetition priming
• Role of conscious, deliberate recollection

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The Critical Distinction

• Explicit memory tasks require conscious,
  deliberate recollection of previous experiences
• Implicit memory tasks do not require conscious
  recollection of previous events
• e.g., b_ _ k

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Research with Amnesics

• Warrington Weiskrantz (1970)
• Tasks
• explicit - recognition, recall
• implicit - mutilated word guessing
• - stem completion
• e.g. st_ _ _
• Replicated
• Dissociation

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Dissociation

• A variable has an effect on one type of test, but
  little or no effect on another type of test
• A variable has one type of effect if measured by
  Test A, but a different effect if measured by
  Test B

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Research with Normal Adults

• Levels of processing and the
• implicit / explicit distincion
• Picture Superiority Effect
• Current Status
• - explanations
• - applications

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Levels of Processing Explicit/Implict Tests
truck
Semantic (pleasant vs unpleasant)
Physical, perceptual Task ( syllables
or Upper/lower case?)
Explicit Memory Test
Higher recall, recognition
___
Higher--or at least equal performance
___
Implicit Memory Test (e.g. t_u_k)
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Picture Superiority Effect
Elephant
versus.

• Subjects view a series of pictures or a series of
  words
• Subjects recall stimuli by writing down names of
  items -- recall of pictures is higher than recall
  of words.

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Weldon Roediger (1987)
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Weldon Roediger Graph (1987)
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Explanations

• No agreed-upon explanation
• Context encoding specificity
• Multiple memory systems
• e.g. Tulving
• Neuroscience account

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Applications of implicit / explicit memory
research to real life problems?
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Ad for Experimental Psychologists
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Expertise

• Influence on LTM
• Definition - consistent superior performance
• - deliberate practice
• - at least 10 years
• Domain specific
• 10-year rule

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Context-Specific Nature of Expertise

• Skilled memory effect
• Chess
• -De Groot
• -Chase Simon (1973)
• 5 second task
• typical vs. random positions
• Similar effects in many domains
• -basketball
• -x-rays
• -circuit diagrams, etc.
• SF (digits only)

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An Expert Waiter - JC

• Ericsson (1985)
• J.C. - 20 tops
• Comparison of J.C. to college students
• Critical difference memory strategies and
  knowledge
• Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, Bauder)

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Expert Waiters Study A Trial
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JCs Strategies
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Characteristics of Experts
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Autobiographical Memory

• Memory for events and issues related to yourself
• Naturally occurring events
• Rapidly growing interest
• Wide variety of topics
• High ecological validity

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Topics

• Flashbulb Memories
• Brown Kulik (1977)
• High level of surprise
• High level of emotional arousal
• Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)
• Schemas Autobiographical Memory
• Generalized, abstract knowledge structures
• Memory for common, ordinary events
• Variable instantiation
• False memories
• Consistency bias
• Repisodic Memory

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Topics

• Source Monitoring
• Origin of a memory
• Actual versus imagined action
• Marsh Colleagues (1997)
• Henkel Colleagues (2000)

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Flashbulb Memory Demonstration
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Schematization of Memory
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Eyewitness Testimony

• The gentleman bandit (1979)
• Identifying faces
• Recognition accuracy
• Time and attention
• Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)
• Length of retention interval
• Intervening info
• Misleading post-event info

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Misinformation Effect

• Caused by misleading information given after
  viewing an earlier event
• RI retroactive inhibition or interference

• Classic experiment - Loftus (1978)

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Loftus (1978)
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Loftus (1978) Results