The Neolithic Revolution

1
The Neolithic Revolution
2
Culture and the beginnings of the Human Experience

• A. Introductory Notes
• Less than 1 of the human experience has occurred
  within the time frame of recorded history
• The earliest form of writing yet recovered dates
  to approximately 5,400 B.C.E.
• The earliest remains of culture date to
  approximately 2,000,000 B.C.E.
• Much of our understanding of world history has
  come from the work of archaeologists

3

• Archaeology is a sub-field of Anthropology
  (Anthropology the holistic study of the human
  experience past and present)
• Through the excavation of sites (locations where
  traces of past behavior or activity can be
  found), archaeologists are able to recover
  information on the past
• 1). this demonstrates that the historical
  record is far from complete
• 2). the incompleteness of the historical record
  leads to the diverse interpretation of events and
  their causes

4

• c. the analysis of archaeological data
  focuses on trying to determine patterns in the
  data
• 1). human behavior is very patterned (very
  little that we do is truly random)
• 2). analysis of artifacts can help to
  determine patterns of manufacture and usage,
  which in term can help demonstrate past human
  behavior
• B. Humans Spread throughout the world
• 1. Archaeological data shows that humans began
  to migrate out from Africa during the Pleistocene
  (Ice Age)

5

• a. Sea level dropped as much as 300 feet
  world wide.
• b. Evidence found in Alaska indicates that
  humans crossed over the Bering Straits
  land- bridge around 31,000 years B.C .
• c. By 7,000 years B.C., humans occupied all
  of the continents with the exception of
  Antarctica.
• 2. Cultural advances in stone tool technology,
  shelter, and mastering the use of fire were
  important in enabling humans to move into colder
  climates
• a. artistic expressions are found in the cave
  paintings in France and Spain depicting hunt
  scenes and various animals

6
(No Transcript)
7

• 1). Lascaux Cave in southwestern France
  is one of the best examples of Upper
  Paleolithic art
• 2). The polychrome paintings depict
  rhinoceroses, lions, horses, and bison
  providing insights into animals that were
  either hunted or were important to the
  cultures of the region
• b. Intricately carved ivory statues or
  figurines have also been recovered from sites
  dating 43,000-15,000 B.C.
• c. primitive calendars, tracking the movement
  of constellations, provide evidence for the
  Late Paleolithic cultures having and needing a
  sense of time

8
(No Transcript)
9

• II. Neolithic Revolution
• A. The changing environment
• 1. the melting of the Pleistocene ice shields
  brought about significant changes in the
  environment
• temperatures became warmer
• sea level rose isolating bodies of land (for
  example, for most of the Pleistocene, Great
  Britain was connected by dry land to France.
  With the melting of the glaciers and the rise of
  sea level, it became separated from the mainland
  of Europe)
• with the warmer temperatures and increased
  rainfall, the vegetation began to chance and with
  it the animal populations

10

• 2. As a result of these environmental changes two
  significant events occurred among many of the
  worlds cultures
• a. groups in the Near East, China, and the
  Americas began to experiment with domestication
  of plants and animals
• b. once agriculture became established, there is
  an increase in the number and size of permanent
  settlements. This in turn led to the development
  of the first urban centers
• B. The shift to agriculture
• 1. There were a number of environmental and
  cultural factors responsible for the shift from
  hunting and gathering to agriculture

11

• a. increase in the worlds temperature caused by
  the end of the Pleistocene and the melting of the
  glaciers
• 1) areas which had a lush diversity of plants
  suddenly became drier resulting in a reduction in
  the different types and quantities of plants in a
  given area
• 2) this caused arid preferring plants, such as
  wheat, barley, and rye, to become more dominant
• 3) the change in vegetation also resulted in a
  change in the types of animals which could live
  in drier conditions
• 4) animals such as the predecessors of the
  modern cow, sheep, goat, and horse became more
  numerous

12

• b. increase in the worlds population density
• 1) at the end of the Pleistocene, the worlds
  population is estimated at about 10 million
  people
• 2) hunting and gathering requires approximately
  10 square miles of land in optimal condition to
  support one (1) individual
• 3) the environmental changes at the end of the
  Pleistocene increases the amount of land required
  to sustain one person due to the plant reduction
• c. both of these factors provided the stimulus
  to experiment with new forms and sources of
  obtaining food by a number of the worlds cultures

13

• d. archaeological evidence indicates that the
  shift to agriculture began in the marginal areas,
  such as upland regions like the Zagros Mountains,
  were groups had to develop new means of
  supporting the growing populations
• 2. Centers for the development of agriculture
• a. There are four (4) major centers, or
  cradles, for the development of agriculture
  based upon archaeological data
• 1. Mesopotamia referred to as the Fertile
  Crescent domesticated plants and animals
  include sheep, goat, cattle, wheat, barley, rye,
  and various types of beans
• 2. China and Southeast Asia domesticated plants
  and animals include rice, pig, cattle
• 3. Mesoamerica and South America domesticated
  plants and animals include corn, squash, various
  types of beans, chocolate, and the potato
• 4. Sub-Saharan Africa domesticated plants and
  animals include millet, various types of beans
  and tubers, and cattle

14
Skara Brae
15
Catal Hyuk
16
II. Mesopotamia

• A. Mesopotamia "the land between the rivers"
• 1. Valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates
• 2. Little rain, so area needs irrigation (small
  scale by 6000 B.C.E.)
• 3. Food supplies increase
• a. Human population increases
• b. Migrants to the area increase--especially
  Semites
• c. Sumer (in south) becomes population center
• 4. First cities emerge, 4000 B.C.E.
• a. Between 3200 and 2350 B.C.E., they evolve into
  city-states (control of surrounding region)
• b. Governments sponsor building projects and
  irrigation
• c. Attacks by others led to wall building and
  military development
• d. Kingships evolve with cooperation of noble
  families

17

• B. The Babylonians
• 1. Around 2,000 B.C., the Amorites conquered
  Sumeria and established a new capital at Babylon
• 2. Under aggressive military rulers, such as
  Hammurabi, the Babylonians extended their control
  over all of Mesopotamia and influenced the
  actions of many neighboring cultures in the Near
  East
• 3. The Babylonians adopted many of the Sumerian
  traits, such as architecture styles and
  cuneiform, as well as added to them
• a. one notable contribution was the first
  discovered code of laws
• b. authorized by Hammurabi, the purpose of the
  code of laws was to provide for the uniform
  administration of punishment for 282 common daily
  issues

18
Sumer
19

• C. What is Civilization?
• 1. subjective definition defined on
  comparison with modern culture
• 2. V. G. Childes definition 10 traits a
  civilization should have
• a. exact and predictive sciences
• b. system of weights and measures
• c. monumental architecture
• d. system of writing
• 3. problem not all civilizations have these
• 4. better to define civilizations as
  state-level societies

20

• 4. The Babylonian Empire was collapsed around
  1550 B.C.
• a. the exact reasons are unclear, but external
  pressure caused by warfare with neighboring
  nomadic cultures and internal rivalries within
  Babylonian society contributed to its collapse
• b. as the Babylonian Empire fell, many of the
  people they had conquered formed smaller,
  separate kingdoms
• D. The Phoenicians
• 1. Phoenician culture developed in the modern
  state of Lebanon
• 2. The proximity to the sea led to the
  development of a maritime civilization, in which
  the sea provided the means for making a living
• 3. The Phoenicians developed wide flung trading
  routes throughout the Mediterranean and along the
  Atlantic Coast to Great Britain

21
III. Indo-European Migrations

• A. Indo-European origins
• 1. Linguists discover similarities between many
  languages they must be related
• 2. Originate in steppes of central Asia pastoral
  people 4500-2500 B.C.E.
• 3. Domesticate horses learn to ride use horses
  with carts, then chariots

22

• B. Indo-European expansion and its effects
• 1. Indo-European society breaks up about 3000
  B.C.E. peoples gradually migrate
• 2. Hittites settle in central Anatolia about 2000
  B.C.E.
• a. Build powerful kingdoms
• b. Conquer Babylonian empire 1595 B.C.E.
• c. Dissolve by about 1200 B.C.E.
• d. Technology light horse-drawn chariots
  (spokes) and iron metallurgy
• 3. Some migrate into central Asia by 2000 B.C.E.
• 4. Other migrations Greece, Italy, central
  Europe, western Europe, Britain
• a. All pastoral agriculturalists
• b. All speak related languages and worship
  similar deities
• 5. Later wave of migrations to Iran and India
  ("Aryan")

23
Egypt

• A. Foundation of Egyptian Culture
• 1. Geographical
• a. Egypt was able to develop in relative
  isolation due to the protective barriers formed
  by the deserts east and west of the Nile River
  Valley
• b. The Nile River and the rich alluvial mud it
  deposited annually along its banks provided an
  ideal environment for agriculture and urban
  development
• 2. Pre-Dynastic Egypt
• a. prior to 3,200 B.C. Egypt was divided into a
  series agricultural districts or nomes
• b. by 3,200 B.C. the nomes had been collected
  into two separate kingdoms of Lower and Upper
  Egypt
• c. In 3,100 B.C. the king of Upper Egypt, Menes
  (also known as Narmur), united both kingdoms
  after a war of conquest

24

• 3. Dynastic Egypt
• a. Old Kingdom
• 1) The Old Kingdom existed from approximately
  2660 to 2180 B.C. beginning with Third Dynasty
• 2) During the Old Kingdom, construction of the
  pyramids is begun
• a) originally thought to have been constructed
  solely as tombs for the pharaohs, some recent
  research suggests that they also served to help
  employ people during flood period of the year
• b) the largest pyramid is found at Giza, near
  modern Cairo
• 3) The view of the pharaoh as a living god
  begins during the Old Kingdom and establishes a
  pattern underlying the power of the pharaohs up
  through Cleopatra
• 4) The reasons collapse of the Old Kingdom are
  not precisely known
• a) an extended period of drought has been
  suggested as one cause
• b) ancient Egyptian writings refer to the
  collapse of the Old Kingdom as the First Illness

25

• b. Middle Kingdom
• 1) extends from 2080-1640 B.C.
• 2) saw a return of order
• 3) the Middle Kingdom is marked by the
  construction of a number of public works
• a) these included the construction of canal
  linking the Nile with the Red Sea
• b) projects such as these helped to restore the
  publics confidence in the pharaohs
• 4) the Middle Kingdom fell to Hyksos in 1640 B.C.
• a) the exact origin of the Hyksos is unknown
• b) the horse and chariot as weapons of war were
  introduced by the Hyksos into Egypt
• c) this time period was referred to by the
  Egyptians as the Second Illness

26

• c. The New Kingdom
• 1) In 1570 B.C. the Egyptians rebelled against
  the Hyksos and drove them out
• 2) This event ushered in the New Kingdom which
  lasted from 1570 B.C. to 1075 B.C. and marks the
  zenith of Egypt as a major power
• 3) During the New Kingdom the borders of Egypt
  were expanded under the leadership of pharaohs
  Thutmose III and Ramses II
• 4) Egypt experienced a brief shift to monotheism
  under the Pharaoh Akhenaton
• a) Akhenaton replaced the worship of Amun-Ra and
  the other gods of the Egyptian pantheon with that
  of the sun god Aten
• b) After Akhenatons death in 1333 B.C., the
  cult of Amun-Ra and the other gods was restored
• c) The most famous of the pharaohs of the New
  Kingdom is Tutankhamen whose intact tomb was
  discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter

27
(No Transcript)
28
(No Transcript)
29
India

• A. The Roots of South Asian Civilization
• 1. Geography
• a. India is relatively isolated from the rest of
  the world
• 1) Himalayan mountain chain borders the
  subcontinent on the north and northwest
• 2) The Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and Bay of
  Bengal surround India to the south
• 3) Dense tropical rainforests restrict access
  from the east
• b. The major river systems in India are the Indus
  River and Ganges River
• a) The Indus River lies in the western corner of
  India
• b) The Indus River has deposited, over the
  centuries, a rich layer of silt which is easily
  tilled on a large scale without metal tools
• c. The natural barriers that surrounded India
  coupled with the Indus and Ganges River basins,
  allowed the populations living there to develop
  their own distinctive cultures

30

• 2. The earliest inhabitants
• a. around 12,000 B.C. hunting and gathering
  groups moved into the Indus Valley
• b. around 6000 B.C. many of the groups had
  shifted to agriculture
• 1) crops that were grown included rice and dwarf
  wheat
• 2) animals that were domesticated included pig,
  water buffalo, and humped cattle
• c. by 3000 B.C. the original farming communities
  had developed into major urban centers with
  planned streets, fortifications, canals, and
  metallurgy. These developments mark the
  beginning of the Harappan Civilization

31

• B. Harappan Civilization
• 1. The Harappan civilization dates from
  approximately 3200 B.C. to 1700 B.C.
• 2. In many respects it was similar to the
  Sumerians in political structure being composed
  of five (5) major city-states
• a. Mohenjodaro was the largest with approximately
  40,000 inhabitants with Harappa having around
  24,000
• b. Each of the cities had massive fortifications
  surrounding the boundaries
• c. Well designed street plans and a highly
  developed water and sewage system were also
  hallmarks of Harappan cities
• 3. Advances in science and technology
• a. the Harappan civilization developed an system
  of writing using 400 different pictographs
  however, as of the present it has not been
  deciphered
• b. to facilitate trade, the Harappans devised a
  standardized system of weights and measures
• c. many of the bronze statuettes that have been
  recovered from Harappan sites demonstrate the use
  of the lost wax method of casting

32

• C. The decline of the Harappan Civilization
• 1. the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro are
  abandoned by 1700 B.C.
• a. the reasons for this are not clearly
  understood
• b. evidence suggests that Harappan civilization
  may have destroyed by military conquest by
  nomadic groups from the north
• 2. the Aryan Invasion
• a. in 1500 B.C. the Aryans, nomadic people from
  central Asia, move into India
• b. the Aryan people bring with them a rich body
  of oral traditions and legends and their
  language, an early form of Sanskrit
• c. Aryan beliefs and culture melded with that of
  the local population to create the Hindu religion
• d. The period from 1500-500 B.C. is referred to
  as the Vedic Age

33

• D. Aryans and India
• 1. relied on pastoral economy (sheep, goats,
  cattle werent considered sacred until much
  later)
• 2. Aryans brought a large body of oral
  literature
• a. this was transmitted from generation to
  generation by word of mouth in Sanskrit
• b. earliest of the oral literature was the Vedas
• 1) these were collections of hymns, songs,
  prayers, and rituals
• 2) honored the gods of the Aryans
• c. the Vedas
• 1) Veda means wisdom or knowledge
• 2) There are four collections that make up the
  Vedas
• 3) The most important is the Rig Veda
• 4) The Vedas were written down about 600 BCE
  though the earliest oral compilations began
  between 1400 900 BCE
• 5) The Vedas also provide information on Indian
  history between 1500 500 BCE (this period is
  referred to as the Vedic Age)

34

• 3. Vedic Society
• a. Aryans believed in a well-defined social order
• 1) Local populations conquered or absorbed by the
  Aryans were referred to as dasas or subject
  peoples or enemies
• 2) Heads of the Aryan chiefdoms were called raja
• b. The social structure created by the Aryans
  established sharp distinctions between groups
• 1) these reflected occupation and social roles of
  the people
• 2) were hereditary
• c. the social structure formed the basis for the
  development of the caste system
• d. Aryans recognized four (4) castes or varnas
• 1) Brahmins priests
• 2) Kshatriyas warriors and aristocrats
• 3) Vaishyas farmers, merchants and artisans
• 4) Shudras landless peasants and serfs

35

• e. The caste system was never absolutely rigid or
  inflexible
• 1) Enabled social change in the society
• 2) Provided a means to classify people and social
  expectations
• 3) The caste system formed the basis for social
  stability much as the concept of law and order
  formed social stability in the Roman empire
• f. Upanishads
• 1) Body of works that explored the Vedas and
  religious issues
• 2) The Upanishads called for the observance of
  high moral and ethical standards
• a) Discouraged greed, envy, gluttony, and all
  manner of excess
• b) Advocated honesty, self-control, charity,
  mercy, and personal integrity
• 3) The ideas of the Upanishads have influenced
  thought and philosophies throughout the world

36
Classical India

• A. Introductory notes
• developments after 500 BCE influenced future
  Indian culture
• Buddhism and Hinduism developed during this
  period
• the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties were established
  between 500 BCE and 500 CE
• B. Mauryan Dynasty
• first dynasty to unite much of India
• unity came about partly because of the Persian
  and Greek invasions of the Punjab region
• Mauryan unification of India began under
  Chandragupta Maurya
• Slowly absorbed most of central and northern
  India into a single state
• Chandragupta and his advisor, Kautalya, built a
  bureaucratic system that enabled them to
  effectively rule over the empire
• Kautalya wrote the Arthashastra, a manual for
  administering the Mauryan empire
• Height of Mauryan empire reached under Ashoka
  Maurya (grandson of Chandragupta)
• Extended Mauryan empire over most of modern
  India (except the southern tip)
• capital established at Pataliputra (near modern
  Patna)
• Mauryan dynasty ended in 185 BCE with the
  individual states exerting their independence

37

• C. The rise of Buddhism
• Buddhism developed from the philosophies and
  teaching of Siddhartha Gautama around 530 B.C.
• Buddhism holds that the attainment of wisdom is
  the way to escape the pain and suffering of life,
  and through wisdom the human condition can be
  improved
• Buddha taught that enlightenment comes from
  following the Eightfold Path
• the Eightfold Path was a series of behaviors and
  values that had to be mastered sequentially
• after mastery of the eighth step, the believer
  would attain nirvana, or the release from pain
  and selfishness
• Buddhism appeals to the common person
• it holds that all life is sacred
• it is taught in everyday language enabling it to
  be understand by the masses
• it makes no distinction among people on the basis
  of gender, social class

38

• D. Gupta Dynasty
• Gupta dynasty began in the central Ganges River
  Valley around 320 CE
• through conquest and alliances the Gupta dynasty
  were able to establish control over most of the
  former Mauryan empire
• Gupta rulers favored a more decentralized form of
  government more similar to that of the Persians
• the invasion of the White Huns in the 6th century
  CE brought about the end of the Gupta Dynasty
• it wasnt until the 1400s under the Mughal
  Dynasty that one state again ruled most of India

39

• E. Hinduism and Reforms
• the spread and increase in popularity of Buddhism
  led to reforms in Hindu belief
• Hindu beliefs held that salvation came through to
  those who participated actively in the world and
  met their caste responsibilities
• holds that individuals can lead honorable lives
  through the four principal aims of human life
• obedience to religious and moral laws (dharma)
• pursuit of economic well-being and honest
  prosperity (artha)
• enjoyment of social and physical pleasure (kama)
• salvation of the soul (moksha)
• the balance of dharma, artha, and kama in a
  persons life will lead to moksha
• Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism as the
  popular religion in India
• Hinduism received support from the Gupta rulers
• Muslim invaders actively raid Buddhist temples
  causing decline
• By 1000 CE Hinduism had replaced Buddhism