FIXED OILS

1
FIXED OILS
2
FIXED OILS PLANT FATS

• Fixed plant oils (e.g. olive oil) may be either
  liquid or solid.
• The terms oil or fat therefore do not have a
  precise significance.
• Fixed oil when the fat is liquid at room
  temperature.
• Plant fat when the fat is solid or semi-solid
  at room temperature.

3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• - Cannot be distilled (unless decomposed). This
  distinguishes fixed oils from volatile oils.
• Leaves a permanent, translucent stain on filter
  paper.
• Specific gravity lt 1.
• All insoluble in water. Soluble in organic
  solvents. (Except ethyl alcohol except castor
  oil).
• Most develop a rancid odour when exposed to air,
  moisture light for prolonged periods of time
  (hydrolysis of esters liberation of fatty
  acids)
• All have characteristic odours.
• Varying viscosities.

4
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• Some form a hard layer when exposed to air ?
  Drying oils, e.g. linseed oil.
• Semi-drying oils, e.g. Sesame seed oil forms
  a slight film.
• Non-drying oils e.g. olive oil does not
  form any hard layer.
• Drying oils consist mostly of unsaturated fatty
  acids such as linolenic acid. The more
  unsaturated fatty acids the oil contains, the
  more drying it is.

5
FIXED OILSCHEMICAL COMPOSITION

• All fixed oils are chemically identical.
• Fixed oils may be either liquid or solid (or
  both, e.g. coconut/olive oil). Generally trigs
  consisting of saturated FA solid, while those
  consisting of unsaturated FA liquid.
• When both types are present (cod-liver oil),
  cooling of the oil results in deposition of
  saturated trigs such as stearin. In most
  medicinal oils, these are removed by freezing
  filtration.
• Trigs can be hydrolysed by heating with caustic
  alkali forms soaps and glycerin.

6
FIXED OILS

• Fixed oils (plant lipids) are natural substances
  ? mainly esters of fatty acids and
  alcohols/polyols.
• Fxs
• Constituents of cell structures (membrane lipids
  phospho/glyco)
• Coating elements (waxes/cutins)
• Reserve substances/energy sources for the plant
  cell

7
FIXED OILS

• Plant lipids are hydrophobic (sometimes
  amphophilic).
• Soluble in apolar or slightly polar organic
  solvents.
• Non volatile (hence fixed),

8
TYPES OF FIXED OILS

• SIMPLE LIPIDS
• Esters of a fatty acid an alcohol.
• E.g. Glycerol, triglycerides constituents, or
  waxy esters
• COMPLEX LIPIDS
• E.g. Phospholipids/glycolipids
• Play an NB role as membrane lipids.
• Lecithins are the only fixed oil that has a
  pharmaceutical/ industrial use.

9
TRIGLYCERIDE STRUCTURE

• Trigs are triesters of a
• -triol
• -glycerol
• -fatty acids
• ? Aliphatic carboxylic acids of variable length,
  normally with an even number of C-atoms.

10
NATURE OF FATTY ACIDS

• Vegetable fatty acids can be one of 2 types
• Saturated Fatty Acids
• Unsaturated Fatty Acids
• In both these groups, chains of 16 or 18 C-atoms
  are most common.

11
FATTY ACIDS

• SATURATED Fatty acids with 12 Cs are rare in
  plants, but they do occur
• E.g. C8 C10 ? trigs of palm seeds (lauric
  myristic acid)
• 12 C atoms Bay butter nutmeg butter
• 20 Cs peanut oil
• Palmitic acid major constituent of vegetable
  oils
• UNSATURATED The most NB ones are those
  consisting of C18

12
GLYCEROL ESTER STRUCTURE

• Trigs may be either homogeneous/ heterogeneous,
  depending on if the fatty acid moieties that
  esterify the 3 alcohol fxs of glycerol are
  identical or different.
• Generally trigs are heterogeneous vegetable
  oils are a complex mix of triesters.
• Homogeneous (simple) trig E.g. tripalmitin

13
TRIGLYCERIDES

• Non-existent in leaves.
• Stored as oily inclusions (oleosomes) which form
  from the ER ? form a source of energy reserve
  for cells, especially in seeds.
• Trig content of seeds increases during the
  maturation process while the phospho-
  glycolipids decrease.
• Some fruits concentrate trigs in their pericarp
  (olive, avocado, bay berry)

14
PRODUCTION OF FIXED OILS

• ORIGINAL METHOD Expression of the plant
  material yields the oil.
• CURRENT METHODS Use organic solvent
• Both methods The crude oil undergoes various
  refining steps.

15
BEFORE EXTRACTION

• Plant material to be pressed undergoes strict
  quality control.
• - absence of foreign matter deterioration
• GENERAL PRELIMINARY PROCEDURES
• Cleaning drying
• SPECIFIC PRELIMINARY PROCEDURES (depends on the
  seeds botanical structure)
• Olives washed
• Cotton Delintering
• Castor seeds ground nuts decorticating.
• Peanuts, soybeans, sunflower seeds Shelled.

16
METHODS OF EXTRACTION

• Extraction by Expression
• Cold Expression
• Hot Expression
• ii. Extraction by Solvents

17
1. EXTRACTION BY EXPRESSION

• Screw presses are normally used to express oils
  from plant material because they give a better
  yield than older hydraulic presses.
• They also operate at higher pressure and
  continuously (not in batches).
• Before undergoing expression, seeds rich in
  proteins are cooked at 90ºC ? frees the oil by
  bursting the cell structures coagulates the
  proteins. A fast drying step normally follows.

18
a. COLD EXPRESSION

• Oils for medicinal uses are extracted at room
  temperature. Only a portion of the oil is
  obtained.
• Oil is normally less viscous with less odour
  than with hot expression (better quality).
• The remaining pressed material may then be
  ground, heated and pressed to express any
  remaining oil.
• The pressed material has nutritive value and is
  used as cattle feed.

19
b. HOT EXPRESSION

• The residue left after cold expression is broken
  down and treated with steam. This causes the
  remaining oil cells to rupture.
• Even after hot expression, 10 of the oil
  remains in the plant material.

20
TYPES OF MACHINES USED FOR EXPRESSION

1. Hydraulic Press
2. Oil Expeller

21
HYDRAULIC PRESS

• Series of corrugated plates between which the
  plant material is placed.
• As the ram rises, the P forces the oil out is
  collected in a gutter around the ram.
• The plates are deeply corrugated to provide
  channels for the oil to escape, but also to
  prevent the spreading of the material during
  pressing.
• This type of press is used for seeds not
  containing a very high amount of oil.
• DISADVANTAGE This method is not continuous
  (plates have to be cleaned after every pressing).

22
OIL EXPELLER

• The material is spread continuously through a
  perforated steel cylinder through which it is
  forced by a spiral screw. The pressed material
  then escapes at the opposite end though a choking
  cone.
• ADVANTAGE Continuous process lt manual labour.
• DISADVANTAGE Suitable only for seeds with a
  high amount of oil.

23
ii. EXTRACTION BY SOLVENTS

• This type of method is used only for technical
  oils (not medicinal oils).
• Seeds used Intact or partially extracted by
  expression.
• Solvent Normally hexane (BP 65 ºC)
• Method Solvent is added to the cleaned, hulled
  roughly milled seeds. The organic phase is
  recovered. (Organic phase solution containing
  the oil in the solvent (called miscella) , and
  also solvent soaked defatted meal).
• Oil recovery 95 99

24
REFINING OF CRUDE OIL

• Crude oil obtained from the miscella may contain
  water, FFAs, lecithins, resins, pigments
  (carotenes, chlorophyll), sterols, waxes,
  substances with odours tastes, and external
  contaminants (pesticides).
• Refining consists of the following processes
• Degumming
• Neutralization
• Bleaching
• Wax removal
• Deodorizing

25
DEGUMMING

• Degumming Mucilage removal
• Fx To remove lecithins, proteins other
  constituents present in the oil in colloidal
  suspension.
• Method Hot oil is hydrated ? colloids form a
  dense gel which separates from the lighter oil.
  The gel is discarded the oil is dried under
  vacuum.
• In most cases, this treatment is replaced by an
  injection of phosphoric acid into the hot oil ?
  phospholipids then precipitate when neutralized
  by NaOH.

26
NEUTRALIZATION

• FFAs, always present in crude oil, are
  neutralized by dilute NaOH.
• The soap formed (soap stock) adsorbs part of the
  impurities colouring matter, phenols, sterols,
  wax esters, traces of metals and miscellaneous
  oxidation products.
• Excess soap NaOH are removed by washing with
  hot water.

27
BLEACHING

• Method Oil is passed through diatomaceous
  earths or activated charcoal.
• The bleaching agent (charcoal/earth) is then
  removed by filtration.

28
WAX REMOVAL

• Crude oil is rich in waxes (sunflower, corn
  cotton seed oils).
• When cooled (frozen), waxes solidify.
• The crystallized waxes are then removed by
  filtration.

29
DEODOURIZING

• Aldehydes ketones are responsible for
  unpleasant odours of crude oils.
• These are eliminated by injecting steam into the
  very hot oil (gt200ºC) under high vacuum.

30
(No Transcript)
31
ADDITIONAL OIL TREATMENTS

• Additional treatments of the oil take place
  mainly in the food industry.
• Includes
• Hydrogenation
• Interesterification
• (margarine industry).
• In all cases, the exhausted plant material is
  recovered, treated (solvents removed), and if
  needed detoxified. It is then used as cattle
  feed. Only in very specific cases will it be
  used for purposes other than animal feed.

32
QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL TESTS

1. Physical Constants
2. Chemical Constants

33
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

1. Specific Gravity
2. Melting / Congealing Point
3. Refractive Index
4. Viscosity
5. Optical Rotation

34
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

• Fixed oils and fats all have a specific gravity
  of lt 1.
• They are therefore all lighter than water.

35
MELTING / CONGEALING POINT

• This physical constant is only used for 2 oils
  (only 2 fixed oils are solid at room
  temperature).
• Oil of Theobroma
• Oil of Hydrocarpus

36
REFRACTIVE INDEX

• DEFINITION This is the ratio of the velocity of
  light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a
  substance.
• Refractive index varies with the wavelength of
  light and temperature.
• Lab wavelength is kept constant with using a
  Na-lamp, T 20 ºC. Refractive index is measured
  with a refractometer.
• The refractive index varies considerably for
  every oil and is expressed as a range

37
VISCOSITY

• 1. Viscosity is the measure of a material's
  resistance to flow. Viscosity is a result of the
  internal friction of the material's molecules.
• 2. The tendency of a fluid to resist internal
  flow without regard to its density.
• 3. The resistance of fluid substance to flowing,
  quantitatively characteristic for an individual
  substance at a given temperature and under other
  definite external conditions.

38
OPTICAL ROTATION / ACTIVITY

1. The angle through which the plane of polarization
   of light is rotated when the polarized light
   passes through a layer of liquid.
2. Optical rotation is the rotation of linearly
   polarized light as it travels through certain
   materials.

39
CHEMICAL CONSTANTS

1. Acid Values
2. Saponification Value
3. Ester Value
4. Iodine Value
5. Unsaponifiable Matter
6. Acetyl value

40
ACID VALUE

• Acid value Refers to the number of mg of KOH
  needed to neutralize the free acids in 1 g of
  oil.
• High acid values occur in oils which are rancid.

41
SAPONIFICATION VALUE

• The hydrolysis reaction of lipids (with KOH
  above) can be used to determine the
  saponification value of the oil.
• Saponification value is expressed as the number
  of mg of KOH needed to neutralize the free acids
  in, and to hydrolyse the esters in, 1 g of the
  substance (oil).

42
ESTER VALUE

• Ester value The difference between the
  saponification and acid values.

43
IODINE VALUE

• Iodine value Gives the measurement of the
  unsaturation of the oil. Oils which partially
  resinify on exposure to air are known as drying
  oils.
• These oils have high iodine values.
• E.g. linseed oil

44
UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER

• Unsaponifiable matter consits of compounds such
  as sterols, which remains after saponification of
  the triglycerides and the removal of the glycerol
  and soaps (by using solvents).

45
ACETYL VALUE

• Acetyl value The number of mg KOH needed to
  neutralize the acetic acid freed by the
  hydrolysis of 1 g of the acetylated fat.
• The oil is first acetylated with acetic
  anhydride, which combines with any hydroxyl group
  present.
• Because these are absent from most fatty acids,
  the small acetyl values usually obtained are due
  to relatively small amounts of sterols.
• But In an oil such as castor oil, the acetyl
  value is high (146-150), due to the large amounts
  of the hydroxyl acid ricinoleic acid.

46
SIGNIFICANCE?

• These constants are important general tests to
  ensure
• That the oil is genuine
• To detect adulteration of fixed oils and fats.
• REASON Because they are chemically complex,
  fixed oils fats are not easily assayed.

47
ADULTERATION OF FIXED OILS

• Cheap oils are often mixed with more expensive
  oils as a form of adulteration.
• 3 of the most commonly used to adulterate are
• Sasame oil (detected by Baudouins test).
• Cotton seed oil (Halphens test)
• Arachis oil (Belliers test)

48
PLANTS CONTAING FIXED OILS

• Olive oil
• Cod-liver oil
• Castor oil
• Theobroma oil
• WAXES
• Wool fat
• Beeswax

49
OLIVE OIL

• DEFINITION Olive oil is the oil expressed from
  the ripe fruits of Olea europea (Oleaceae
  Family). The latifolia variety bears larger
  fruit, but the longifolia variety yields the best
  oil.
• COMMON NAMES Salad oil, sweet oil
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Mediterranean, California,
  Spain, France, Greece Tunisia.

50
OLIVE OIL COLLECTION PREPARATION

• The methods used for preparations vary according
  to the local conditions. In modern factories
  hydraulic presses are widely used but in more
  remote districts the procedure is the same as it
  had been for hundreds of years.
• 1st oil expressed Virgin oil
• Subsequent extractions marc is solvent
  extracted lower quality oil.
• Superior grades of oil Extra-virgin, Virgin,
  Pure, or Refined.

51
OLIVE OIL CHARACTERISTICS

• Olive oil Pale yellow liquid, sometimes with a
  green tint.
• Oil has a slight odour bland taste.

52
OLIVE OIL CONSTANTS

• If the fruits used to produce the oil have been
  allowed to ferment, the acid value will be higher
  than is officially permitted.
• Oil should comply with the tests for absence of
  arachis, cotton-seed, sesame tea-seed oil (C.
  sasanqua).

53
OLIVE OIL CONSTITUENTS

• Oils from different sources differ slightly in
  their constituents (composition). This may
  result due to the different varieties of olive
  used, or to climate differences.
• 2 types of oil are distinguished
• That produced in Italy, Spain, Asia CA
• (contains more olein less linolein)
• ii. Produced in Tunisia

54
Type I Type II BP Limits _______________________ _________________________________________ Oleic Acid 78-86 65-70 56-85 Linoleic Acid 0-7 10-15 3.5-20 Palmitic Acid 9-12 15 7.5-20 Stearic Acid 9-12 15 0.5-5.0
55
OLIVE OIL USES ACTIONS

• Used in the preparations of soaps, plasters etc.
• Salad oil
• May protect against colonic cancer (due to its
  action on prostaglandins).

56
COD-LIVER OIL

• DEFINITION Medicinal cod-liver oil is a fixed
  oil prepared from the fresh liver of the cod,
  Gadus callarias, other Gadus spp. (Gadidae
  Family), under conditions which make it palatable
  containing a certain amount of Vitamins.
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Norway Iceland
• NOTE Fish-liver oils should not be confused
  with fish-body oils.

57
COD-LIVER OIL HISTORY

• Cod-liver used to be exported from Norway to
  Europe during the Middle Ages, although for
  non-medicinal purposes.
• The original method of preparation was the
  rotting process, in which the livers where
  allowed to rot in barrels. The oil rising to the
  surface was skimmed off.
• The more modern process of steaming was
  introduced in 1850.

58
COLLECTION EXTRACTION

• Cod-livers (contain 50 oil), are removed
  immediately after the fish are caught
  transferred to steamers stored at low
  temperature.
• Process normally takes place in Norway or Iceland.

59
PREPARATION

• Main processes involved in the preparation of
  cod-liver oil include
• Refining
• Drying
• Winterization
• Deodourization
• Standardization of the vitamin content

60
REFINING OF THE CRUDE OIL

• The quality flavour of cod-liver oil are
  improved by refining the oil under air-free
  conditions to avoid oxidation.
• Method Crude oil is rapidly heated to 77 ºC. A
  reagent is then added to remove impurities. This
  also causes further dissolution of the small
  amount of liver tissue present. The oil water
  are removed without contact with air. This
  process is then repeated another 2 times.

61
DRYING

• Drying is carried out in a vacuum drying tower
  which continuously evaporates any small amount of
  residual water.
• Result a clear bright, highly refined oil.

62
WINTERIZATION

• All medicinal veterinary oils are cooled to 0
  ºC, which causes the stearin to separate. The
  solid is removed by filtration and a
  polyunsaturated product is left.

63
DEODORIZATION

• Final deodorization is achieved by steaming under
  vacuum. This removes aldehydic ketonic
  impurities.
• It also protects the oil from oxidation.

64
STANDARDIZATION

• The medicinal oil is standardized for vitamin
  content by blending.
• BP standards 1 g oil should contain at least
• 600 IU vitamin A
• 60 IU vitamin D

65
STORAGE OF COD-LIVER OIL

• Cod-liver oil should be stored in well-fitted
  airtight containers.
• It should be protected from light stored in a
  cool, dry place.

66
COD-LIVER OIL CHARACTERS

• Medicinal cod-liver oil is very pale yellow
  liquid with only a slightly fishy odour taste.
• The acid value should not exceed 1.2 but it
  varies with age.
• Iodine Value high (150-180).
• Unsaponifiable matter low (1.5) unlike
  halibut-liver oil.

67
COD-LIVER OIL CONSTITUENTS

• The oil consists of glycerides of unsaturated
  (85) and saturated (15) acids.
• Polyunsaturated acids play an important role in
  human health
• Saturated fatty acids myristic acid, palmitic
  acid traces of stearic acid.

68
ACTIONS USES

• The medicinal properties of cod-liver oil are
  mainly due to the Vitamins A D.
• It is widely used in underdeveloped countries for
  the prevention treatment of rickets.
• Europe USA Traditionally used as a vitamin
  supplement.
• Recent research relief of rheumatic pains
  joint muscle stiffness.
• Reduces blood cholesterol.
• Protects against CVD

69
COD-LIVER OILALLIED DRUGS

• Halibut-liver oil the fixed oil obtained from
  the livers of the Halibut, Hippoglossus vulgaris
  (Pleurnectideae).
• It is a pale yellow liquid containing large
  amounts of vitamin A D.
• Unsaponifiable matter is not less than 7.
• Uses similar to cod-liver oil (smaller doses).
• Many other fish-liver oils resemble cod-liver
  oil, shark-liver oil, Oleum Selachoidei, is
  included in the Indian Pharmacopoeia.

70
CASTOR OIL

• DEFINITION Castor oil is a fixed oil obtained
  from the seeds of Ricinus communis
  (Euphorbiaceae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Native to India. Produced
  in Brazil, India, China, Russia Thailand.

71
CASTOR SEEDS BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Seeds show considerable difference in colour
  size. They are oval, slightly compressed
• Colour uniform grey, brown or black, mottled
  with brown or black.
• If grown in good conditions, they have very
  little odour the taste is slightly acrid.
• If the testa are broken, rancidity will develop.

72
CASTOR OIL PREPARATION

• 90 of the worlds castor oil is prepared in
  India Brazil. Small amounts of raw seeds are
  now exported.
• Method of preparation Seeds are removed from
  the testa. Kernels are cold-pressed with a
  hydraulic press. Oil is then refined by
  steaming, filtration bleaching.
• Cold-expression yields 33 of medicinal oil.
  Further amounts of lower quality oil may be
  obtained by other methods

73
CASTOR OIL CHARACTERISTICS

• Medicinal castor oil is a colourless or pale
  yellow liquid, with a slight odour faintly
  acrid taste.
• Acid value increases with age. If initially
  high indicates the use of damaged sees or
  careless extraction or storage.
• Viscosity Extremely high

74
CASTOR OIL CONSTITUENTS

• Castor seeds contain 46-53 fixed oil.
• These fixed oils consist of the glycosides of
• Ricinoleic
• Isoricinoleic
• Steric
• Dihydroxystearic acids
• The cake, after expression, contains extremely
  poisonous toxins (ricins) ? unfit for cattle
  feed. In the body they produce and anti-toxin
  (anti-ricin).
• Ricin D is a sugar protein with a strong lethal
  toxicity.

75
CASTOR OIL USES ACTIONS

• Once widely used as a domestic purgative.
• Now more restricted to hospital use for
  administration after food poisoning as a
  preliminary to intestinal examination.
• Because of the ricin, the seeds have a much more
  violent action than the oil and is not used as a
  purgative in the West.
• Non-pharmaceutical uses of oil Turkey Red Oil,
  soaps, paints, varnishes lubricants.

76
CASTOR OIL ALLIED DRUGS

• Croton seeds obtained from Croton triglium
  (Euphorbiaceae) a small tree producing similar
  capsules to those of castor. The seeds resemble
  castor in size and shape but have a dull,
  cinnamon-brown colour.
• Oil contains 50 fixed oil. Contains croton
  resin crotin a mixture of crotin-globulin
  crotin-albumin comparable to ricin. Also
  contains diterpenes, capric, lauric palmitic
  acids. These are anti-inflammatory vesicant.
• Esters potential anti-HIV activity.
• Should be used with caution. Not used
  medicinally in the West. Internally violent
  cathartic.

77
CASTOR OIL ALLIED HERBS

• Physic nuts or Purging nuts seeds of Jatropho
  curcas (Euphorbiaceae). Contain 40 fixed oil
  contain a substance similar to ricin called
  curcin. Both the seeds the oil are powerful
  purgatives.
• Abrus sees (prayer beads) are the seeds of Abrus
  precatorius (Leguminosae). Contain a toxic
  glycoprotein (abrin) resembling ricin. Also
  contain indole-alkaloids. Used in folk medicine
  in Asia, Africa S. America to treat many
  ailments, to procure abortion to hasten labour.
  In India they are also used as an oral
  contraceptive. (weigh 1 carat 200mg
  traditional weights).

78
ALMOND OIL

• DEFINITION Almond oil is the fixed oil obtained
  by expression from the seeds of Prunus amygdalus
  (Roseceae) var. dulcis (sweet almond) or var.
  amara (bitter almond).
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Mediterranean countries
  North Africa, France, Spain, Italy)

79
SWEET BITTER ALMONDS

• Young fruit have a soft, felt-like pericarp, the
  inner part of which gradually becomes
  sclerenchymatous as the fruit ripens to form a
  pitted endocarp (shell), also consisting of
  sclerenchymatous cells. This is sometimes ground
  and used to adulterate powdered herbs.
• The testa of the seed is removed by soaking it in
  warm water (known as blanching).
• Bitter almonds are sometimes found in samples of
  sweet almonds, especially in those from N.
  Africa. Their presence may be detected the
  sodium picrate test for cyanogenic glycosides.

80
ALMOND OIL CONSTITUENTS

• Both varieties contain 40-55 fixed oil, 20
  protein, mucilage emulsin.
• Bitter almonds contain 2.5-4 cyanogenic
  glycoside, amygdalin.
• Olein
• Glycosides of linoleic other acids

81
ALMOND OIL PRODUCTION CHARACTERS

• Almond oils is produced by grinding the seeds
  expressing them in a canvas bag between slightly
  heated iron plates.
• They are sometimes ground before expression (no
  added advantage). The oil is then clarified by
  filtration.
• Oil is pale yellow liquid with a slight odour
  bland, nutty taste.

82
ALMOND ESSENTIAL / VOLATILE OIL

• Essential oil is obtained from the cake left
  after expressing bitter almonds. This is
  macerated with water for some time to allow for
  the hydrolysis of amygdalin. The benzaldehyde
  and hydrocyanic acid are separated by steam
  distillation.

83
ALMOND OIL ACTIONS USES

• Almond oil is used in the preparation of many
  ablution articles.
• When taken internally, it has a mild laxative
  action.
• Volatile almond oil is used as a flavouring agent.

84
ARACHIS OIL

• DEFINITION Arachis oil is obtained by
  expression from the seeds of Arachis hypogaea
  (Leguminosae).
• COMMON NAMES Earth-nut, ground nut, peanut.
• GEOGRAPHICL SOURCES Tropical Africa, India,
  Brazil, S. USA Australia.

85
PREPARATION

• During ripening, the fruits bury themselves in
  the sandy soil in which the plants grow. Each
  fruit contains1-3 red-brown seeds.
• Fruits shelled by machine.
• Kernels contain 40-50 fixed oil.
• Because of the high oil content of the seeds,
  when crushed, it is difficult to express.
  Therefore, after boiling, part of the oil is
  removed in a low pressure expeller and the
  remaining cake is solvent extracted. The 2 oil
  fractions are then mixed together before
  undergoing purification.
• The pressed cake makes excellent cattle feed.
• The ground pericarp is used as an adulterant for
  powdered herbs.

86
ARACHIS OIL CONSTITUENTS

• Glycosides of
• Oleic
• Linoleic
• Palmitic
• Arachidic
• Stearic
• Lignoceric
• And other acids

87
ARACHIS OIL ACTIONS USES

• Similar properties to olive oil.
• It is an ingredient of camphorated oil.
• Mainly used in the production of margarine
  cooking fats.
• Hydrogenated oil is also official.
• Arachis oil is the most likely oil to be used to
  adulterate other types of oil.

88
LINSEED LINSEED OIL

• DEFINITION Linseed is the dried ripe seed of
  Linum usitassimum (Linaceae).
• COMMON NAMES Linseed, flaxseed
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES S. America, India, USA,
  Canada, England.

89
LINSEED CONSTITUENTS

• 30-40 fixed oils
• Mucilage
• Protein
• Small amounts of cyanogenetic glycosides
  Linamarin Lotaustralin
• Flavonoids
• Lignan potential cancer preventative

90
LINSEED OIL

• DEFINITION Extraction of linseed oil is done by
  hot expression of linseed meal. The cake is
  adjusted to leave in sufficient oil to make it
  suitable for cattle feed.
• Linseed oil is a yellow-brown drying oil with a
  characteristic odour bland taste.

91
LINSEED OIL CONSTANTS

• On exposure to air it gradually thickens forms
  a hard varnish.
• Iodine value high (at least 175) has high
  amounts of unsaturated acid glycosides.

92
LINSEED OIL CONSTITUENTS

• Linolenic acid
• Linoleic acid
• Oleic acid
• Myristic
• Stearic
• Palmitic acids

93
USES ACTIONS

• Crushed linseed is used as a poultice and whole
  seeds are used to make demulcent preparations.
• Oil is used as a liniment.
• Research anti-bacterial properties in topical
  applications effective against Staphylococcus
  aureus strains resistant to anti-biotics.
• Linseed cake is a valuable cattle feed.
• For use in paints, linseed oil is boiled with
  driers such as Mangenese resinate (by forming
  metallic salts, the oil is dried more rapidly
  not safe for medicinal use)

94
OIL OF THEOBROMA

• DEFINTION Theobroma oil is obtained from the
  ground kernels of Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae)
  by hot expression. The oil is filtered and
  allowed to set into moulds.
• COMMON NAMES Cocoa butter
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Holland

95
THEOBROMA OIL CONSTITUENTS

• Glycerides of
• Stearic
• Palmitic
• Arachidic
• Oleic
• And other acids
• It is the most expensive of all the fixed oils,
  and is commonly adulterated with waxes, stearin,
  animal or vegetable tallows.

96
THEOBROMA OIL CONSTANTS USES

• Boiling point 31-34 ºC.
• This makes it ideal for the use in the
  preparation of suppositories.

97
WAXES
98
WAXES

• Wax is sometimes used to describe hard paraffin
  (HC mixture), but it is best confined to natural
  mixtures containing large amounts of esters
  derived from higher monohydric alcohols of the
  methyl alcohol series combined with fatty acids.
• In this series the alcohols change from liquids
  to solids, become less soluble in water have
  higher melting points MWs.

99
WAXES - EXAMPLES

• Vegetable products
• (e.g. carnauba wax)
• Animal products
• e.g. beeswax wool-fat.
• Waxes are abundant in nature (epidermal surfaces)
  but only a limited number have commercial
  significance.

100
FATS VS WAXES

• Fats may be saponified by either aqueous or
  alcoholic alkali, but waxes are only saponified
  by alcoholic alkali.
• This is used to determine if fats were added to
  adulterate waxes.

101
WAXES - COMPOSITION

• Fats consists almost entirely of esters.
• Waxes esters (palmitate type), free acids,
  HCs, free alcohols sterols.
• Acid values of waxes also tend to be higher than
  those of fats.

102
WOOL FAT

• DEFINITION Wool fat (anhydrous lanolin) is a
  purified fat-like substance prepared from the
  wool of the sheep, Ovis aries (Bovidae).

103
WOOL FAT PREPARATION

• Raw wool contains considerable quantities of
  wool grease or crude lanolin, the potassium
  salts of fatty acids earthy matter.
• Raw lanolin is separated by cracking with
  sulphuric acid purified to be fit for
  medicinal use. Purification may be done by
  centrifuging with water by bleaching.

104
WOOL FAT CHARACTERS

• Wool fat is a pale yellow, tenacious substance
  with a faint but characteristic odour.
• It is insoluble in water.
• Melting point 36-42ºC
• Soluble in ether chloroform.
• Like other waxes, it is not readily saponified by
  aqueous alkali, but with a alcoholic solution of
  alkali.
• Saponification value 90 105.
• Iodine value 18 32.
• Acid value not more than 1

105
WOOL FAT CONSTITUENTS

• 25 water
• Cholesterol isocholesterol (main active
  constituents).
• Unsaturated alcohols
• Fatty acids
• (- lanoceric
• - lanopalmitic
• - carnaubic fatty acids)

106
WOOL FAT USES

• Wool fat is used as an emollient base for creams
  ointments.

107
BEESWAX

• DEFINITION Beeswax is obtained by melting and
  purifying the honeycomb of Apis mellifica and
  other bees.
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES West Indies, California,
  Chile, Africa, Madagascar India.
• Separate monographs exist for yellow and white
  beeswax.

108
BEESWAX PREPARATION

• Wax is secreted by worker bees in cells on the
  ventral surface of the last 4 segments of their
  abdomen. The wax passes out through pores in the
  chitinous plates of the sternum is used,
  particularly by the young workers, to form the
  comb.

109
PREPARTION OF YELLOW BEESWAX

• Yellow beeswax is prepared, after removal of the
  honey, by melting the comb under water. This
  causes solid impurities to sink to the bottom
  while any residual honey is dissolved). This is
  then strained and the wax is allowed to solidify
  in suitable moulds.

110
PREPARATION OF WHITE BEESWAX

• White beeswax is prepared from yellow beeswax
  which is treated with charcoal, potassium
  permangante, chromic acid, or chlorine, by the
  slow bleaching action of light, air moisture.
  In this method the melted wax is allowed to fall
  on a revolving cylinder which is kept moist.
  This then slowly becomes bleached. This is then
  repeated at least one more time. The wax is
  finally cast into circular cakes.

111
BEESWAX CHARACTERS

• Beeswax is a yellow-brown or yellow-white solid.
  
• It breaks with a granular fracture has a
  characteristic odour.
• It is insoluble in water slightly soluble in
  cold alcohol, but dissolves in chloroform and
  also in warm fixed volatile oils.

112
BEESWAX CONSTITUENTS

• Beeswax is a true wax
• Consists of 80 myricin
• (myricyl palmitate)
• Contains a little myricyl stearate.
• Free cerotic acid
• Aromatic substances

113
BEESWAX ADULTERANTS

• Japan wax not a true wax, but a fat (may be
  saponified by means of boiling aqueous sodium
  hydroxide waxes are unaffected by aqueous
  alkali).
• Japan wax is prepared from the fruits of Rhus
  (Anacardiaceae).

114
BEESWAX USES

• Beeswax is used for the preparation of plasters,
  ointments and polishes.

115
COOKING OILS

• Do not use fresh, unrefined, mechanically
  pressed, light oxygen protected EFA-rich seed
  oils for cooking.
• Labels Cholesterol Free.
• Opened bottles should be kept in the fridge
  used with 3-6 weeks. Olive oil can keep well for
  up to 2 years.

• NB Cooking method influences the type of oil
  you use.

116
OIL TEMPERATURE OF SMOKING POINT C
Flaxseed oil Pumpkin seed oil Sunflower oil Olive oil Macadamia oil Canola oil Sesame seed oil Grapeseed oil Coconut oil Peanut oil Avocado oil 107 120 160 185 205 198 204 232 215 216 232 232 220 - 250