SOME OB THEORIES RELEVANT

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SOME OB THEORIES RELEVANT

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Title: SOME OB THEORIES RELEVANT

1

SOME OB THEORIES RELEVANT
TO RESEARCHING THE IMPACTS OF A DIVERSE WORKFORCE
Jacqueline Smith-Mason
Robbie Mitchell Jr.
Blue Wooldridge

MEETING THE CHALLENGE THEORIES THAT WILL ASSIST
IN ACHIEVING HIGH PERFORMANCE ORGANIZATIONS WITH
A DIVERSE WORKFORCE
By
Blue Wooldridgebwooldri_at_vcu.edu
Fellow, National Academy of Public
Administrationand Professor The L. Douglas
WilderSchool of Government and Public
AffairsVIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITYRichmond,
VA 23284-2028

We see diversity in its broadest meaning, as this
centurys greatest challenge to organizational
live worldwide (Griggs Louw, 1995, p. vi)

FIVE CHALLENGES THAT REQUIRE NEW APPROACHES TO
MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES
MANAGING STRATEGICALLY
MANAGING GLOBALIZATION
MANAGING TEAMS
MANAGING CHANGE
MANAGING DIVERSITY
(Jackson Schuler, 2000, p. xx)

DIVERSITY
A mix of people in one social system who have
distinctly different, socially relevant group
affiliations Cox and Beale (1997, p. 1).

Managing diversity creating a climate in which
the potential advantages of diversity for
organizational or group performance are maximized
while potential disadvantages are minimized.
(Cox and Beale, p. 2).
Valuing diversity a philosophy about how
diversity affects organizational outcomes that
holds that the presence of diversity represents a
distinct organizational resources that, properly
leveraged, can bring a competitive advantage
against organizations that either are culturally
homogeneous or fail to successfully utilize their
diversity. (Cox and Beale, p. 13)

IDENTITY GROUPS
Life attitudes are not randomly distributed
through the population. Members of the same
identity groups', say the same age, gender, race
and such, have had overlapping life experiences
which may, in turn, predispose them toward more
or less favorable attitudes about particular
company practices and cultures" (Mirvis and
Kanter 1991, p. ).

EXAMPLES OF IMPORTANT IDENTITYGROUPS
WHITE MALES
PEOPLE OF COLOR
WOMEN
GAYS, LESBIANS, BISEXUAL, TRANSGENDER
COGNITIVE STYLES
WORKFORCE ILLITERACY
WORKERS WITH DISABILITIES

IDENTITY GROUPS (CONT)
DIFFERENT WORK-RELATED VALUES
WORKER STATUS
THE KNOWLEDGE WORKER
HIV INFECTED WORKERS
INTERNATIONAL WORKERS
OLDER WORKER
GENERATION X WORKERS
GENERATION Y WORKER

While White males comprised 51 of the workforce
as recently as 1980, they are projected to make
up only 44 of the workforce in the year 2005
(Galen, 1994) and 43.5 in 2014 (Toossi, 2004).
In fact, when you subtract the Hispanic
population, the percentage of the workforce that
is white, non-Hispanic males is projected to be
only 34.9 in 2014, down from 43.7 in 1988, and
39.8 in 1998 (Toossi, 2005).

The percentages of the people of color in the
workforce in 2000 and as projected for the year
2014 (Toossi, 2004) are
2000 2014
African American, non-Hispanic11.5 12.0
Hispanic 10.9 15.9
Asian and other non-Hispanic 4.5 7.8

It is estimated that women will make up 46.8 of
the workforce in 2014, as compared with 45.2 in
1990 and 46.6 in 2000 (Toossi, 2005). This is
in sharp contrast to 1940 when only 28 of women
were in the labor force (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 1998).

Research shows that more than three out of four
married employees have spouses or partners who
are also employed which is an increase from 66 to
78 percent over the past twenty years (Families
and Work Institute, 1997). Other findings of the
Institute include, 46 percent of the workforce
are parents of children under the age of 18 and
20 percent are single parents and 20 percent of
all parents also had responsibilities for raising
children and caring for elderly relatives. This
occurrence is often referred to as the sandwich
generation.
Look at Family Responsibilities Discrimination
(USA Today 10/25/07 B3)

The number of known gays and lesbians in America
is not an easy number to derive considering the
obstacles many homosexuals face when openly
admitting their sexual orientation. Although
debated for years, recent research indicates
between 2 to 12 of the American population is
gay but due to self-reporting factors and the
risks involved in admitting homosexuality this
number could be fairly conservative
(Carr-Ruffino, 1996 Wooldridge Maddox, 1995).

Cognitive styles have been defined as
"...information processing habits representing
the learner's typical mode of perceiving,
thinking, problem solving and remembering,"
(Keefe, 1979, p. 8). Some of the more important
cognitive styles are
Perceptual Modality Preferences-preferred
reliance on one of the three sensory modes
(kinesthetic or psychomotor, visual or spatial,
and auditory or verbal) of understanding
experiences (Dunn, Dunn, Price, 1978)
Field Independence vs. Dependence-analytical as
opposed to a global way of experiencing the
environment. independents perceive things as
discrete from their background field, while
dependents tend to be influenced by an embedding
context (Witkin, et al, 1971)
Conceptual Tempo-individual differences in the
speed and adequacy of hypothesis formulation and
information processing on a continuum of
reflection vs impulsivity, (Kagan, 1966)

Locus of Control (Rotter, 1971), and
Leveling vs Sharpening-levelers tend to blur
memories and merge new precepts readily with
previously assimilated experience they tend to
over-discriminate, (Holzman Klein, 1954). For
a more detailed description of each of these
learning styles see Wooldridge and Haimes-Bartolf
(2005) and Wooldridge (1995).

Other research indicates that half of the adult
work force does not read, write, or compute well
enough to perform their work satisfactorily
(Ford, 1992). The U.S. Department of Education
estimates that the functionally illiterate now
account for 30 of the unskilled, 29 of the
semiskilled, and 11 of the managerial,
professional and technical workforce. It is
estimated that more than half of the 26 million
new jobs that will be added to the economy during
the turn of the century will require some
post-secondary training, and about one-third will
demand a college degree (Bernardon, 1989).

Workers with Disabilities Approximately 54
million non-institutionalized Americans have
physical, intellectual, or psychiatric
disabilities (the term intellectual disability is
used instead of cognitive disability and mental
retardation. The term psychiatric disability is
used in place of emotional disability). Of these
cases, 26 million are classified as having a
severe disability. Severe disabilities include
Alzheimers disease, autism, mental retardation,
and long-term use of a cane, crutches, walker, or
wheelchair. Census figures indicate that of the
15.6 million working-aged adults (aged 16-64),
with disabilities only 34.6 were employed in
contrast with 79.8 of those without
disabilities.

Increase in diversity of work-related values
Power Distance The degree of inequality which
people consider normal from relatively equal
(that is small power distance) to extremely
unequal (large power distance) (Hofstede, 1994,
p. 5).
Uncertainty Avoidance The degree to which
individuals prefer structured over unstructured
situations. Range of acceptance that risk is a
normal part of every day life.
Individualism/Collectivism refers to which
individuals prefer to act as individuals rather
than as members of groups. Individuals view their
responsibility is to themselves and immediate
family, Collectivist believe they have a
reciprocal responsibility with their extended
family and community members.

Increase in diversity of work-related values
Masculinity and its opposite pole Femininity (or
Growth vs Nurturing) is the degree to which
values like assertiveness, performance, success,
and competition, which in nearly all societies
are associated with the role of men, prevail over
values like the quality of life, maintaining warm
personal relationships, care for the weak.
Long-term versus Short-term Orientation At one
pole one finds values oriented towards the
future. On the opposite side one finds values
orientated towards the past and present.

Country PD UCA IND/COLL MAS/FEM LT/ST
(0 low, 100 high)
USA 40 46 91 62 29
Germany 35 65 67 66 31
Japan 54 92 46 95 80
Mexico 81 82 30 69 n/a
West Africa 77 54 20 46 16
Hong Kong 68 29 25 57 96

CONTINGENT WORKERS
As a result of changing demographics,
nontraditional work arrangements are increasing.
A survey of CEOs in Fortune 500 companies showed
that 44 rely more on temporary, part-time,
leased, and contract workers than they did five
years ago, and 44 expect to rely more on
external workers in the next five years than they
do now (Fierman, 1994). Based on the Bureau of
Labor Statistics definition, contingent workers
are those persons who expect their jobs to end in
a year or less or report their jobs as temporary.
There are an estimated 5.4 million contingent
workers in the United States (Monthly Labor
Review, June 2001). In addition to contingent
workers, the bureau refers to classifies
independent contractors, temporary workers,
on-call workers, day laborers and those employed
by contract firms as workers employed in
alternative work arrangements. The February 2001
labor survey found 8.6 million independent
contractors (6.4 percent of total employment),
2.1 million on-call workers (1.6 percent of total
employment), 1.2 million temporary help agency
workers (0.9 percent of the employed), and
633,000 contract company workers (0.5 percent of
total employment).

GENERATIONAL DIVERSITY
In 2006 it was estimated that there were four
generations currently in the workforce-Matures
(The silent generation) were about seven
percent of the work-force, Baby Boomers were
about forty-two percent, Generation Xers were
about twenty nine percent, and the millennial
generation about 22 percent .
Workers didnt always mingle in the workplace
with the generations the way they do today
(Eagan as quoted by Hilton, 2001 August, p. 53).

THE OLDER WORKER
Older workers as an increased percentage of the
workforce In the year 2014, the median age of
the workforce is projected to be 41.6 years up
from 34.8 years in 1978, 36.6 in 1990 and 39.3 in
the year 2000. In 2014 twenty-one and two tenth
percent (21.2) of the workforce will be older
than 55 years as compared with only 13.1 in
1984, 15.6 in 2004. (Toossi, 2005). In 2014,
46.9 of the workforce will be older than 45 as
compared with only 28.1 in 1984.

The group of individuals that have come to be
known as Generation X has been much the center of
attention in recent literature concerning
management and employees, education and training.
As usual, stereotypes have evolved and negative
opinions have been formed and reinforced.
"Generation X," "The Post Baby Boom
Generation," "The 13th Generation," "Slackers,"
"Baby Busters," "Grunge Kids," "After Boomers,"
"The Clueless Generation," "Whiners." Just as
there is no common term to describe this segment
of the workforce, neither is there a consensus as
to the birth dates of this generation nor the
approximate number of this group. McIntosh (1994)
identifies those born between 1961 and 1981 as
the 13th generation because they were determined
to the 13th generations of Americans. He suggests
that this generation represents nearly 79.3
million Americans. Losyk (1997) suggest that
Generation X refers to those born between the
years 1965 and 1976, and represent 44 million
Xers, as compared with the 77 million "boomers"
born between 1965 and 1985.

GENERATION X
As Zill and Robinson (1995) warn us, sweeping
generalizations about any group are bound to be
incorrect (see also Haworth, 1997). The
individuals that make up Generation X are by no
means homogenous, however, members of this group
appear to be extremely different from earlier
generations (Jennings, 2000 Heselbarth, 1999
Dunn-Cane, Gonzales Stewart, 1999 Corley,
1999 McGarvey, 1999 Payne Holmes, 1998). For
example, as to overlapping life experiences
relevant to their education and training, many
Xers grew up with technology right at their
fingertips. In their homes, they usually had
unlimited access to video games and some even
had computers that they could freely use. Even
further, some Xers were fortunate enough to have
computers in their classrooms and at arcades on
weekends. Not only is technology a key factor in
their environment, Xers were probably more
familiar with their television set than they were
their schoolbooks, spending more time in front of
the television than in school

Members of Generation X place a high priority on
education and training. "People in Generation X
view training as a way to improve their chances
of getting promoted," (as reported in Lynch,
1998, p.1). Schaaf (1998) found that younger
workers give training higher marks than do older
workers. Generation Xers tend to make job
decisions based on whether training is available.
"The organizations that provide continuous
education are in a better position to retain
productive employees" (Caudron, 1997, p. 24).
This view is supported by the research of Bova
and Kroth (1999) which reports that Generation X
employees place a very high value on workplaces
that support continuous learning.

GENERATION Y
Nexters, Echo Boomers, Generation Next,
Millennials, Nintendo Generation, or N-Gen
(Internet Generation
Halford (1998) refer to those born after 1980 as
Generation Y. The pace of business is changing
dramatically. Thats why understanding Gen Y
is crucial to businesses today (American
Demographics, 2001, September 1, p. 6).
Understanding how the 14th and largest generation
to date born in the United States (Business Week
Online, 2001) must start with learning what makes
this group so different from those that have come
previously.

In sheer numbers alone this group encompasses
between 71 76 million people spanning the age
range of those preparing to enter kindergarten,
preteens or tweenies, teenagers, and young
adults.

Bombarded with global viewpoints Nexters confront
gender bending rules and sexuality through
redefinition, not to mention a far from
traditional concept of the family structure as
once seen by their parents and grandparents.
Reared by single parent households headed by
mothers or fathers, extended families, and
cohabitating parents, the children of Generation
Next are more tolerant of what constitutes a
family and diversity in form is widely accepted.

Gen Y plans to customize their work life to
accommodate their own high expectations of what
work can offer coupled with a plan for a pleasing
personal life. In this approach to
customization, the expectation exists for
supervisors to be supportive of Nexters goals
toward balancing professional and personal lives
(Kleiman, 2001). With three to four part-time
job or internships under their belts this group
is already sure they know what they want out of
their careers and how they want to be managed
(Business Week Online, 2001).

BUT ACHIEVING HIGH PERFORMANCE FACES CHALLENGES
IN AN ORGANIZATION WITH A DIVERSE WORK FORCE. IN
SOME STUDIES, DIVERSE GROUPS HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO
OUTPERFORM HOMOGENOUS GROUPS IN CONTRAST, OTHER
STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT HOMOGENOUS GROUPS
AVOID THE PROCESS LOSS ASSOCIATED WITH POOR
COMMUNICATION PATTERNS AND EXCESSIVE CONFLICT
THAT OFTEN PLAGUE DIVERSE GROUPS.

WELL IF THE RESEARCH ON THE RESULTS OF INCREASED
WORK FORCE DIVERSITY ON ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE IS MIXED, WHAT RESEARCH SUGGESTS THAT
A DIVERSE WORK FORCE IS FUNCTIONAL FOR HPOs, WHAT
THEORIES WILL GUIDE US IN DEVELOPING COMPENCIES
IN MANAGING DIVERSITY?

Diversity of employees is important for high
performing organizations for at least three
reasons. First, some studies have shown that
diverse work teams are more effective, efficient
and produce higher quality solutions than there
homogeneous counterparts when diversity is
managed properly. Tsui, Egan and O'Reilly (1992)
do an excellent job of reviewing the previous
literature on this issue. They point out that
there is evidence the diverse work groups are
beneficial for tasks requiring creativity and
judgement (Jackson, 1991)

Secondly, the concept of Representative
Bureaucracy holds that the demographic
composition of the staff of an organization
should mirror the demographic composition of the
general public. In this way, the preferences of a
heterogeneous population will be represented in
organizational decision making. That is a female
manager with dependent children is more likely to
hold values and be sensitive to the experiences
of a female subordinate with the same
responsibilities.

Insert Robbies work WITH HIS IDENTIFICATION TITLE

Finally HPOs need a diversified staff because of
the concept of vicarious self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is an important element in
individual performance, since belief that one has
the capacity for producing a desired result is
vital for motivation (see Vrooms
Expectancy-Valancy Theory of Motivation, 1964),
and performance is a function of motivation,
opportunities, role clarification and acceptance,
and abilities (Steers Black, 1994). Bandura
also believes that the most important source of
information concerning self-efficacy is personal
performance accomplishment because it is based on
personal mastery experiences. Successes raise
mastery expectations.

However, people do not rely on experienced
mastery as the sole source of information
concerning their level of self-efficacy. Many
expectations are derived from vicarious
experience. Vicarious learning is learning that
takes place through the imitation of other role
models. That is, we observe and analyze what
another person does and the resulting
consequences. As a result, we learn without
having to experience the phenomenon firsthand,
(Steers and Black, 1994, p. 105). Seeing others
perform activities successfully can generate
expectations in observers that they, too, will
improve if they intensify and persist in the
efforts. If people of widely differing
characteristics can succeed, than observers have
a reasonable basis for increasing their own sense
of self-efficacy.

THEORIES THAT PROVIDE
INSIGHT IN ACHIEVING A
HIGH PERFORMANCE ORGANIZATION
WITH A DIVERSE WORKFOCE

David Silverman defines a Theory as a
Statement in general terms about the likely
relationship between two or more phenomena. It
suggests hypotheses that is possible to test, and
where necessary, refute.
Some theories that provide insights in managing a
diverse work force

CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Employees are motivated by
economic incentives
HUMAN RELATIONS Employees are motivated by
having their social needs meet on the job
ORGANIZATIONAL HUMANISM Employees are motivated
by challenges and the ability to grow through
their work
CONTINGENCY THEORY Employees are different. Each
is motivated by a different mixture of incentives

INSERT JACKIES SLIDES WITH HER IDENTIFICATION

ORGANIZATION JUSTICE THEORY
Organizational justice is peoples perceptions of
fairness in organizations, consisting of
perceptions of how decisions are made regarding
the distribution of outcomes (procedural
justice), the perceived fairness of those
outcomes themselves (as studied in equity theory
or distributive justice), and the perceived
fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to
determine organizational outcomes (interactional
justice) (Greenberg Baron, 2003).

Distributive Justice
The perceived fairness of the way rewards are
distributed among people.
Equity Theory
(Adams, S Weick, K)
The most popular is a series of Social comparison
theories of motivation (Goodman, 1977). Others
include Inducement-Contribution (March and
Simon), Social Exchange (Holman, G). Social
comparison theories focus on individuals feeling
or perception of how fairly they are treated as
compared to others.

Equity Theory continued
Two basic assumptions It is assumed that
individuals engage in a process of evaluating
their social relationships much like they would
evaluate economic transactions in the
marketplace. Social relationships are viewed as
an exchange process in which individuals make
contributions or investments and expect certain
outcomes in return.
Secondly, it is assumed that people do not
assess the equity of an exchange in a vacuum.
Instead, they compare their own situation with
others to determine the relative balance.
Determining the extent to which an exchange is
satisfactory is influenced by what happens to
oneself compared to what happens to others.

Equity Theory continued
Inputs Investments, represent those things an
individual contributes to an exchange. In a work
situation, inputs include items like previous
work experience, education and the level of
effort on the job.
Outputs Items that an individual receives from
the exchange. Outcomes include pay, fringe
benefits, accrued status, seniority, and positive
feedback.

Consequences of Perceived Lack of Distributive
Justice
People may alter their inputs
People may alter their outcomes
People may distort their inputs or outcomes
cognitively
People may leave the field
People may distort the inputs or outcomes of
others
People may change objects of comparison
People may engage in property deviance

Procedural Justice
Procedural justice is perceptions of the
fairness of procedures used to determine
outcomes.
Procedural justice is the employees perceived
fairness of the formal procedures governing an
organizations decisions (Masterson, Lewis,
Goldman, Taylor, 2000). Employees judge
procedures based on consistency, correctability,
consideration of group opinion, accuracy of
information, morality or ethicality, and lack of
bias (Hubbell Chory-Assad, 2005). Even when
workers see a high degree of distributive
justice, a low degree of procedural justice can
negate the perceived fairness of the outcomes
received (Hubbell Chory-Assad, 2005).

Consequences of Perceived Lack of Procedural
Justice
Lower trust in management
Higher intention to turnover
Lower evaluation of their supervisor
Greater conflict, lower harmony
Lower job satisfaction
People may engage in production deviance

Interactional Justice
Interactional justice is the perceived fairness
of the interpersonal treatment used to determine
organizational outcomes.
Two major factors contribute to interactional
justice. These are informational justification
(the thoroughness of the information received
about a decision) and social sensitivity (the
amount of dignity and respect demonstrated in the
course of presenting an undesirable outcome, such
as a pay cut or the loss of a job).

Interactional Justice continued
While distributive justice and procedural
justice are antecedents of trust in an
organization, interactional justice is an
antecedent of trust in a supervisor. Furthermore,
employees who trust their supervisor are more
likely to trust the organization as a whole. For
this reason, organizations would benefit from
encouraging close relationships between
supervisors and their subordinates and from
investing in training that would teach
supervisors how to treat employees fairly and
politely while also improving supervisors
managerial and interpersonal skills (Wong et al.,
2006).

Interactional Justice continued
Informational justice, a term proposed by
Greenberg (1994), claims that employees are more
likely to label organizational procedures fair
when the organization provides sufficient
information to the employees explaining the
reasoning behind the decisions made. Greenberg
looked at the varying levels of information
presented to clerical workers regarding an
upcoming smoking ban and found that employees
were most likely to accept the ban when the
organization provided thorough information and
displayed high amounts of social sensitivity
(Greenberg, 1994).

Conclusion
Latham and Pinder (2005) identified
organizational justice theory as one of the three
most important approaches to work motivation to
surface in the past 30 years. Motivation is a
psychological process that results from the
interaction between an individual and his
environment. Justice within an organization
enables employees to maximize personal gain,
acknowledges their value to the organization or
to management, and shows that the organization or
those in authority hold a basic respect for the
employees worth. Employees who feel that the
organization values their worth are more
motivated to exhibit high levels of performance
and favorable work ethic, which will in turn
benefit the organization (Latham Pinder, 2005).

There appear to be conflicting theories of what
happens when a workgroup becomes diverse.

Contact Theory from social psychology (Blau,1977
Kanter, 1971 Allport, 1954) holds that
interaction with members of minority groups makes
members of the majority more tolerant.
A primary cause of negative feelings by a
majority group toward a minority group is an
absence of meaningful interaction that breeds
ignorance and hostility. Increased contact with
minorities should contribute to more tolerance
among members of the general public.

CONTACT THEORY
Researchers employing innovative experimental
research designs soon concluded that a wide
variety of conditions had to be met before
contact with a minority group produced more
positive feelings toward that group. Most
importantly, beginning with Sheriff and others
(1954) numerous studies have indicated that
members of the dominant and minority group must
have equal status for the duration of the contact
and that they must work cooperatively on an
endeavor if the contact is to produce
ameliorative effects.

CONTACT THEORY
In addition, the interaction must be fairly
intimate and the institution or society in which
the contact is taking place must support the
interaction between the groups (Allport, 1954).
While these conditions are problematic enough,
they are only the essential ones (Devine,
1995). Other researchers have found evidence
that successful task completion (Blanchard,
Adelman, ad Cook, 1975 Worcel and Norvell 1980
Worchel 1986), non-stereotypicality of minority
participants, shared values and varied
interaction (Sheriff et al, 1954) are necessary
for contact to have positive effects.

On the other hand, there are theories that would
suggest that increased diversity of a workgroup
would increased group members hostility.

Social Identity Theory (S.T. Fiske, 1993,
Thornton, Tran and Taylor, 1997). The premise of
social identity theory is that individuals can
identify with many social groups and the salience
of group membership influences the individuals
attitudes and behavior (S.T. Fiske, 1993).
Researchers have described identity as sharing a
common fate, interests, or values (Thornton, Tran
and Taylor, 1997).

Social Categorization Theory (Tajfel and Turner,
1986 OReilly, Caldwell, Barnett, 1989).
This theory explains the role of social identity
in the development of attitudes towards oneself
and others. Social identify is established and
maintained primarily through the process of
differentiating oneself from individual who are
outside ones reference group.

Social Categorization Theory
There is also substantial evidence that people
routinely classify themselves and others based on
social categories such as age, gender, race, and
status and evince strong preferences for groups
based on these social categories (Tajfel and
Turner, 1986). Research consistently has shown
that individuals choose to interact more often
with members of their own social group than with
members of other groups (e.g., Stephan, 1978).

Similarity-Attraction Theory
The similarity-attraction hypothesis maintains
that similarity in attitudes is a major source of
attraction between individuals. A variety of
physical, social and status traits can be used as
the basis for inferring similarity in attitudes,
beliefs, or personality. For example,
interpersonal attraction has been associated with
similarity in socioeconomic background,
competence (Baskett, 1973) and even leisure
activities (Werner and Parmelee, 1979).
Consequences of high interpersonal attraction may
include frequent communication, high social
integration, and a desire to maintain group
affiliation, which may result in low turnover.

LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE (LMX)
The leader-member exchange (LMX) model has been
offered by Graen and his colleagues (e.g., Graen
Wakabayashi, 1994) as an alternative approach
to the study of leadership. In contrast to
traditional models that imply that a leader
exhibits a similar leadership style toward all
members of a work group, the LMX model suggests
that leaders may develop different types of
relations with different members of the same work
group. In this respect, the model depicts
leader-follower relations (exchanges) as existing
on a continuum ranging from high to low quality.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
(Bollino Turnley Journal of Management Volume
29, Issue 2, April 2003, Pages 141-160)
A growing body of research indicates that
individuals in organizations often engage in
impression management behaviors that are designed
to influence the way in which they are perceived
by others (e.g., Bozeman and Leary Rosenfeld,
Giacalone Riordan, 1995).

According to Jones and Pittman (1982),
individuals typically use five impression
management tactics (1) Ingratiation, whereby
individuals seek to be viewed as likable by
flattering others or doing favors for them (2)
Self-promotion, whereby individuals seek to be
viewed as competent by touting their abilities
and accomplishments (3) Exemplification, whereby
individuals seek to be viewed as dedicated by
going above and beyond the call of duty (4)
Supplication, whereby individuals seek to be
viewed as needy by showing their weaknesses or
broadcasting their limitations and (5)
Intimidation, whereby individuals seek to be
viewed as intimidating by threatening or bullying
others.

Impression Management
Giacalone, (Personnel, 66 n5, May, 1989)
categorizes Impression Management into two
distinct strategies
DEMOTION-PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES After employees
have been involved in a questionable behavior or
activity, they will probably try to express
themselves in ways that will reduce their
responsibility for that action. Social scientists
have identified three methods that individuals
use to achieve this goal accounts, apologies,
and disassociation.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT (Giacalone)
PROMOTION-ENHANCING STRATEGIES Employees are
often concerned that management has not
recognized their talents and accomplishments and
that they will not receive the promotion or
salary adjustment that they deserve. Such
employees will then attempt a self-promotion
campaign that will make their strengths more
visible and provide them with apparent
responsibility for the positive outcome in the
company. Social scientists have found that
individuals who are interested in appearing more
positively may use one or more of four primary
strategies entitlements, enhancements, obstacle
disclosures, and association.