ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy

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ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy
Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction

• 19th 23rd June 2006
• Nairobi, Kenya

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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)

• O.S. KALUMIANA

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Introduction

• Solar energy - is produced by the sun due to the
  nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium
  nuclei.
• The sun radiates in all directions and a small
  part of the radiation reaches the earth
• It is practically an infinite source of energy
  because the life of the Sun is estimated to be
  some billions of years.
• Solar energy is one of the promising alternatives
  to the current energy problems. It holds good
  promise, both as direct or indirect energy
  source (wind, biomass, hydro and tidal).
• Solar energy can be converted to heat Solar
  water heaters, solar driers, solar distillers
  etc
• Conversion to electricity Solar Photovoltaic
  (PV) technology
• The use of solar energy through photovoltaic (PV)
  technology is very promising and its use is
  increasing rapidly in the Africa.

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Solar PV Applications

• Water pumping for small-scale remote irrigation,
  residential uses in remote villages
• Lighting for residential needs, schools and
  health
• Communications in emergency radios and cellular
  telephone
• Refrigeration for medical and household uses
• Provision of power for televisions, videos
  stereos, and other appliances.

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Solar PV Applications

• Solar Photovoltaic Project Kicks Off (2006) World
  Cup Play
• Nuremberg, Germany RenewableEnergyAccess.com.
  As Germany took the first victory last week in
  the opening game of the World Cup, one of
  Germany's own solar photovoltaic companies kicked
  off completion of a new solar photovoltaic (PV)
  project lining the upper levels of the stadium
  where teams will compete over the next few weeks.
  

12 June 2006 The 140 kW Siemens solar project
installed on the Nuremberg World Cup soccer
stadium.
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Advantages of PV Systems

• Cost When the cost is high for extending the
  utility power line or using another
  electricity-generating system in a remote
  location, PV in most cases is often the most cost
  effective source of electricity
• Reliability PV modules have no moving parts and
  require little maintenance compared to other
  electricity-generating systems.
• Modularity PV systems can be expanded to meet
  increased power requirements by adding more
  modules to an existing system.
• Environment PV systems generate electricity
  without polluting the environment and without
  creating noise.
• Ability to combine systems PV systems can be
  combined with other types of electric generators
  (wind, hydro, and diesel, for example) to charge
  batteries and provide power on demand.

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Solar Radiation

• Unlike utility power plants, which produce
  electricity constantly despite the time of day
  and year or the weather, the output of PV modules
  is directly related to these factors
• Thus in designing a solar system, reliable solar
  data is required.
• Solar energy consists of electromagnetic waves
  like any light waves, X-rays or radio waves.
• The only difference in the types of waves is the
  variation in their wavelength.
• These waves travel through space with an
  incredible speed of 3X105 km/sec
• The distance of the sun from the earth is
  1.5X108km. Variation of about 3 occur during
  the year.
• Just outside our atmosphere an area of 1m2
  receives 1,534 W/m2
• It takes approximately 8 minutes for the Suns
  rays to reach the Earth.

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Solar Radiation

• As the solar radiation passes through the Earths
  atmosphere, part of it gets absorbed, reflected
  and scattered.
• The extent of attenuation depends on the length
  of the path, which the radiant energy traverses
  through the atmosphere.
• When the sun is overhead, the length of this path
  is minimum. In that case maximum solar energy
  reaches the earth hence the Sun appears most
  intense around the noon
• The position of the sun in the sky depends on the
  time of the year, hour of the day and the
  position of the earth
• To account for the dependence of solar radiation
  on the position of the sun, a solar panel has to
  be positioned accordingly. Important angles
  determining the correct position of the solar
  panel are
• Declination, i.e. the angular position of the sun
  at solar noon with respect to the plane of the
  equator
• The hour angle after solar noon. Solar noon is
  defined as the time of the day that the sun is at
  its highest position.

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Solar Radiation

• The scattered solar radiation coming from all
  directions is called diffuse radiation.
• The part of solar radiation, which comes direct
  from the Sun, is termed as the direct radiation.
  It is this part of the solar radiation that can
  be focused by a lens.
• The diffuse radiation cannot be focused.
• The sum of the diffuse radiation and the direct
  radiation is the total radiation that is received
  on the earths surface. This is called the global
  radiation.

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Units and Measures

• Energy is measured in Joules (J)
• Power is the rate of energy, i.e. energy supplied
  or used per unit time. Power is measured in watts
  (W).  
• One watt of constant power for one hour is one
  watt-hour of energy.
• 1000 J 1 kilo Joule (kJ)
• 1000 kJ 1 mega Joule (MJ)
• 1 Watt-hour 3600 Joules (J)
• 1000 Watt-hour (Wh) 1 kilo Watt-hour 1 kWh
• Solar Constant
• The rate of solar radiation received on a unit
  area of surface above the earths atmosphere at
  the average Sun-Earth distance when the suns
  rays are normal to the surface is called the
  Solar constant. The value of the solar constant
  is 1,367 W/m2
• Solar Irradiance
•   The rate of solar radiation received at any
  time and place on the earth per unit area is
  called solar irradiance (W/m2)

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Units and Measures

• Solar Insolation
• Total amount of solar radiation received at a
  place in a given time interval (usually a day or
  an hour) is called solar insolation.
• Solar insolation is generally measured in mega
  joules per day per area per day (MJ/m2/ day).
  Solar insolation is also measured in kilowatt
  hours per square meter per day (kWh/m2.day) or
  equivalently in peak sun hours.
• Peak sun hours may be defined as the number of
  hours for which solar insolation would last if it
  were being received at a constant rate of one
  kWh/m2
• Maps exist that show the daily global radiation
  on the earth for specific periods.
• The best data are derived from measurements on
  the spot for a longer time.
• In Africa countries, daily totals of global
  radiation are available from a network of
  measuring stations

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Optimum Orientation of Solar Modules

• An optimum orientation of the solar module is one
  which best matches the annual availability of the
  amount of solar radiation and its demand.
• In Southern Hemisphere, for optimum solar
  radiation, a module should face the north and
  make an angle with the horizontal, which is
  approximately equal to the latitude of the
  location.
• For example, Zambia lies in a latitude belt of
  about 10 to 20 South. Therefore, for the North
  half of Zambia, the optimum tilt should be
  between 15 and 20 and for the southern half of
  Zambia, the optimum tilt should be between 20
  and 25.

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Project Examples

• Zambia ESCO Project

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Zambia ESCO Project

• 400 solar Consumers
• 100 at Nyimba
• 150 at Chipata
• 150 at Lundazi
• In the majority of ESCO clients households there
  is at least one household member with a formal
  income
• Normally involved in farming as well
• Paying for energy services (2004)
• Without PV services, households paid US7.7 on
  energy services per month
• With PV services, households paid US11.8 on
  energy services per month

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Zambia ESCO Project

• Services provided
• 4 lamps Electricity
• 1 Radio/TV outlet
• Light, used for
• Children are able to study more
• Reading and writing
• Extend working hours
• Electric services, used for
• Entertainment
• Replace dry-cell batteries in radio cassette
  players
• TV (and videos)

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Zambia ESCO Project

• Technical functionality
• Most common problem blackouts caused by over
  usage.
• The local ESCO attends to problems
• Batteries component that requires most
  attention
• Conclusion
• Many households in rural areas are prepared and
  capable to pay service fee
• Reaching the poor and low income groups is
  difficult
• Solar PV technology can improve living standards
  in rural areas

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Zambia PV for Tribal Chiefs

• 2005-2006
• 200 SHS targeted for chiefs throughout the
  country
• 50 Wp SHS with 4lights
• 150 SHS installed to date
• Maintenance manual to be provided (see sample of
  manual provided)
• All systems provided free of charge extension of
  100 Government facilitated rural electrification
• Huge popularity among chiefs who can not, on
  account of remote location, be connected to the
  national grid
• Programme being extended to schools and clinics

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PV Experience in Zimbabwe

• SHS Dissemination modes in
• Total approx 85 000 solar home systems
• Dissemination modes
• private purchase
• GEF Solar project 1993-1998
• 12 000 45Wp equivalent systems
• JICA Study Project 1997
• ESCO approach in two household clusters
• Chinese donation 1999.
• 110 SHS with TVs, one communal water pump.
• Source Yaw Afrane-Okese Maxwell Mapako EDRC,
  University of Cape Town, Risø International
  Energy Conference Roskilde, Denmark, 19-21 May
  2003 Solar PV Rural Electrification Lessons from
  South Africa and Zimbabwe

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PV Experience in Zimbabwe

• Private Purchase
• Numerically dominant, responsible for at least 72
  000 SHS
• Mostly small modules
• 20Mostly small modules, 20-40Wp crystalline and
  12Wp amorphous modules
• Highly variable installation quality including
  umounted modules that are basked in the sun and
  taken indoors night.
• Controllers often excluded due to cost
• Both fluorescent and incandescent bulbs used,
  fluorescent lights costly and not readily
  available
• Associated with upper income households, no
  subsidies

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PV Experience in Zimbabwe

• GEF Solar Project
• Three dissemination modes tried out, Private,
  Utility and NGO delivery
• Agribank administered loans, which had own credit
  scheme excluding the NGO mode which had own
  credit scheme and eligibility criteria
• Crystalline modules 20Wp to 83Wp, batteries
  initially automotive, later sealed later sealed
  deep cycle
• Lights installed fluorescent only, controller
  always, controller always installed. Sample
  inspections for quality of installation. Shortage
  of inspectors compromised thoroughness
• Maintenance not built in and no incentive for
  installing companies to provide maintenance
  service (except NGO mode where NGO collected
  installments)
• All subsidies negotiated by the project fell away
  at end at end of project. Prices rose sharply.
• Most installing companies collapsed after end of
  project when installation rate dropped.

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PV Experience in Zimbabwe

• JICA Study project
• ESCO approach trial on already installed systems
• Crystalline modules initially 25Wp, raised to
  56Wp after client complaints over inadequacy of
  25Wp
• Lights installed fluorescent only, controllers
  always installed. All batteries deep cycle.
• Maintenance by technical college trained
  technician contracted by ESCO
• Most clients rural farmers paying maintenance
  fees annually. Droughts led to poor payments in
  some years.
• Project ended with users having option to take
  over their SHS on payment of lump sum to ESCO
• Project was bilateral and equipment is owned by
  Government

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PV Experience in Zimbabwe

• Lessons Learnt
• Subsidized PV programs are bound to fail as it is
  difficult to for poor governments to maintain the
  required subsidy
• Maintenance is crucial for the long life of PV
  systems
• PV programs do not necessarily benefit the poor,
  who are more inclined to donated PV systems than
  commercially distributed ones.
• PV replaced candles as sources of lighting
  improved quality

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Other Experiences from PV Projects

• Financial viability of the solar energy market
  remains a difficult problem. remains a difficult
  problem.
• The NGO support in assessing loan eligibility,
  fee collection, service management, etc is
  proving to have reasonable prospects.
• Impossibility of covering operating costs from
  service fees service fees -a global problem
• The fee collection system security burden
• Full ownership of the systems by ESCOs results in
  expensive electronic money collection and
  anti-tampering devices diverting attention from
  more quality service delivery.
• The poor do not generally benefit from SHS
  projects but rather the gap between them and the
  rich increases, hence the focus on the poor needs
  to shift
• The critical energy needs of households involving
  the drudgery many poor people endure through fuel
  wood collection, wood cooking and indoor air are
  not integrated into the way SHS are generally
  disseminated.
• Flexibility in energy service levels from solar
  PV is an important criterion for customer
  satisfaction. Survival strategies of the poor
  require greater flexibility.
• Source Yaw Afrane-Okese Maxwell Mapako EDRC,
  University of Cape Town, Risø International
  Energy Conference Roskilde, Denmark, 19-21 May
  2003 Solar PV Rural Electrification Lessons from
  South Africa and Zimbabwe

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Module 7 PV

• What are the current constraints to PV
  implementation in your country in particular and
  Africa in general?
• Who finances PV projects in your country?
• How would an ADB/FINESSE led approach be of
  benefit to PV implementation in your country?