Presented by:Roger Sutherland, PE

1
Stormwater Quality Issues and the Pollutant
Reduction from Highway Cleaning Programs

• Presented by Roger Sutherland, PE
• Pacific Water Resources, Inc. Beaverton,
  Oregon

Water Resources and the Highway Environment
Impacts Solutions
2
Many water quality planners recommend treating
urban stormwater with Wet ponds Grassy
swales Sand filers Wet vaults Other structural
devices
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Introduction
Introduction
3
Retrofitting drain inlets in streets parking
lots and highways with inserts to trap litter and
contaminated sediments.
Gaining particular interest is
Introduction
Introduction
4
Many recent studies have shown that
Standard TSS testing techniques and the use of
automatic samplers have greatly underestimated
the magnitude, concentration and average particle
size of sediment in urban stormwater.
Introduction
Introduction
5
Resulting in
The inundation of treatment facilities with high
unanticipated loadings of sediment and gross
pollutants that have led to poor removal
performance and higher maintenance costs.
Introduction
Introduction
6
Studies by Sutherland and Jelen clearly establish
that
Street sweeping is the most cost effective BMP
from a pollutant reduction standpoint and should
be considered first before structural treatment
devices are used.
Introduction
Introduction
7
Most newer machines whether
VacuumRegenerative airMechanical broom
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are more effective at sediment and associated
pollutant pick-up. The practice should now be
called Street Cleaning, not street sweeping.
Introduction
Introduction
8
Maestre and Pitt recently combined nationwide
stormwater quality data from four major
stormwater databases
NURPUSGSInternational BMP (ASCE)NSQD
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What Have We Learned?
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Analyses of the 10,000 individual events from 594
sampling locations representing 16 different land
use categories found that
The variability between sampling locations for
any land use category within the same USEPA rain
zoneis greater than the variability between land
uses themselves within that rain zone.
What Have We Learned?
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Around 5 to 20 of the sites located in the same
USEPA rain zone and land use category are
expected to have median concentrations that are
significantly different than the remaining sites
in the group.
What Have We Learned?
11
Minton reports that, given the amount of
stormwater quality data and the several hundred
publications, it is not possible to summarize
what these data are telling us regarding
physical, chemical and biological constituents.
There is evidence, however, that all of our past
monitoring is biased and should be tossed
out.Why biased? Two reasons.
Is the Existing Dataset Flawed?
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1
Withdrawal water velocities of older automatic
samplers cant pick up particles greater than 100
to 200 microns. Hence we may have been
understating the concentrations of sediments and
some attached pollutants.Metals, phosphorus,
petroleum and related hydrocarbons and
pesticidesare all hydrophobic and therefore
sorb to these larger particles.
Is the Existing Dataset Flawed?
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2
Standard laboratory procedures for TSS
measurement require the split of the field sample
into aliquots for analysis.Rapid hand mixing,
pouring and use of a pipette fails to properly
sample larger material that may have been
captured resulting in an underestimation of the
TSS concentration.
Is the Existing Dataset Flawed?
14
Others argue that we have had a bias in the
opposite direction. Concentrations, and
therefore loadings, may be overstated to the
extent that we have tended to sample larger
storms (e.g. 0.5 inches or more in depth). But
most runoff occurs from much smaller storms,
which have lower rainfall intensities resulting
in lower overland and gutter flow velocities and,
consequently, smaller particle sizes and lower
pollutant concentrations.
Is the Existing Dataset Flawed?
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Hence, the bias of older automatic samplers may
have been counter-balanced by the failure to
recognize the dominance of the smaller
storms.Once thing is now clear
Sampling in the future, done properly, will be
quite expensive.
Is the Existing Dataset Flawed?
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Cleaning StreetsIS NOTan Effective BMP
An Urban Myth
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Nationwide Urban Runoff Program(NURP) 1982
conclusion
Street sweeping is generally ineffective as a
techniquefor improving the quality of urban
runoff.
An Urban Myth
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What has changed by 2006
Improved sweepers
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NPDES permits
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TMDL compliance
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Public expectations are greater
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End-of-Pipe treatment is very expensive
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An Urban Myth
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Over 30 million was spent studying the
characteristics and potential control of urban
stormwater runoff quality at 28 U.S. cities
between 1979 1982.
USEPA 1982 NURP Study
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Street cleaning was investigated in the
following U.S. cities
City
Sites
Bellevue, WA Champaign Urbana, IL Milwaukee,
WI Winston-Salem, NC
2 4 2 2
USEPA 1982 NURP Study
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The studies used either a paired basin or serial
basin approach with continuous sampling of
end-of-pipe urban runoff quality occurring under
either swept or unswept conditions.
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The resulting runoff quality data was analyzed
statistically, not explicitly. Computer models
of that era were not considered to be reliable or
accurate.
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USEPA 1982 NURP Study
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NURP evaluated street cleaning performance as
measured by the percent change in the site median
Event Mean Concentration (EMC) for each pollutant
of interest.
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NURP concluded that street sweeping using
equipment of that era was generally ineffective
in reducing the concentrations of pollutants
commonly found in stormwater.
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USEPA 1982 NURP Study
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However, the actual data analyses of the five
major pollutants (TSS, COD, TP, TKN, and Lead) at
each of the 10 sites where street sweeping was
investigated showed that under swept conditions
EMCs were actually reduced in 60of the 50
pollutant/site investigations. Increases in site
median EMCs were reported for 16 out of the 50
pollutant/site investigations, and 9 of those
from the two North Carolina sites.
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NURP Study Actual Data Analysis
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EMC Reduction
100
50
0
(50)
(100)
JOHN ST. SILLINOIS
MATTIS NILLINOIS
MATTIS SILLINOIS
CBD N CAROLINA
LAKE HILLS WASHINGTON
RESIDENTIAL N CAROLINA
JOHN ST. NILLINOIS
SURREY DOWNS WASHINGTON
RUSTLER WISCONSIN
STATE FAIR WISCONSIN
NURP Study Actual Data Analysis
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We now know that these EMC increases resulted
from the NURP era street sweepers inability to
pick up significant amounts of the dirt and
dust fraction of the accumulated street dirt
(i.e. less than 1/8 inch). Intense rain storms
(which occur more frequently in North Carolina)
were then able to efficiently transport the
remaining unarmored material which led to higher
pollutant concentrations for the swept condition.
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USEPA 1982 NURP Study
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Why does this matter now?
Technology has greatly improved the sediment pick
up performance of all types of street
cleaners. Because of the NURP conclusion, most
stormwater people including most consultants and
NPDES coordinators believe that street cleaning
is ineffective at reducing pollutant loadings in
stormwater.
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USEPA 1982 NURP Study
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The number 1 reason to sweep is
Sweeping Improves Water Quality
Number 1 Reason to Sweep
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Box-Whisker Plots
Cleaning Improves Water Quality
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Baltimore Street Cleaning Pilot Study Copper
concentration declined
Not Cleaned
Cleaned
Cleaning Improves Water Quality
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Baltimore Street Cleaning Pilot Study Total
nitrogen concentration declined
Not Cleaned
Cleaned
Cleaning Improves Water Quality
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Baltimore Street Cleaning Pilot Study Reduction
of higher concentrations for total phosphorus
Not Cleaned
Cleaned
Cleaning Improves Water Quality
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Cross Israel Highway (CIH)Stormwater Quality
Study
Comparison of Not Cleaned to Cleaned Pavement
1.2
1.0
0.8
Zinc (mg/L)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Cleaned
Not Cleaned
Cleaning Improves Water Quality
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In the built environment
One half to two thirds of the rain that falls on
impervious surfaces is falling on
pavementPavements contribute half, if not more,
of the toxic pollutants found in
stormwaterUnlike most other BMPs, sweeping can
have an immediate impactPavement cleaning is
the most cost-effective BMP based on dollars per
pound of pollutant removed from the stormwater
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Benefits of Cleaning
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Working with data from 46 individual stormwater
treatment devices located in Snohomish County,
Washington, Minton and Ewbank (2002) reported the
following costs per pound of TSS removed.
TSS Removal Costs
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TreatmentDevice
Number of Projects
Cost Range /lbTSS Removed
AverageConstruction Cost
MedianCost
Wet pond
5
2.0 - 15
7.0
4.3
Wet vault
7
4.3 - 61
22
10
O/W separator
6
2.8 - 24
10
5.9
Sand filter
3
4.0 - 26
14
13
Swale (New)
5
0.5 - 4.4
1.5
0.9
StormFilterTM
1
7.8
7.8
7.8
Vortex separator
1
4.4
4.4
4.4
Excludes costs of engineering, permitting and land
TSS Removal Costs
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Minton and Ewbank (2002) also estimated the cost
effectiveness of retrofitting roadside ditches to
function as treatment swales to be 5.5 to 28
per pound of TSS removed.
TSS Removal Costs
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Data from a study of structural stormwater
treatment devices by CALTRANS indicates that TSS
removal costs ranged from 10 to 60 per pound,
not including land costs.
TSS Removal Costs
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Sutherland, Myllyoja and Jelen (2002) studied
street cleaning practices in Livonia, Michigan
and computed TSS removal costs for regenerative
air sweeping of residential streets that ranged
from 1.80 to 3.20 per pound of TSS removed
depending on cleaning frequency, which ranged
from once every two months to twice each
month.Similar TSS removal costs were computed
during a study of street cleaning practices in
Jackson, Michigan.
TSS Removal Costs
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Type of sweeper used(pick-up performance is most
important) Forward speed of the sweeper(4-to-6
miles per hour is recommended) Parked car
interference(requires a political will,
ordinances and enforcement however, fines can be
used to support the cleaning program) Frequency
of street cleaning(usually varies by land use or
street categories)
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Street Cleaning Programs Can Control
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But how does a street cleaning program determine
the most cost-effective or best program for
reducing stormwater pollutant washoff? For
accurate estimates, computer modeling must be
used. Pacific Water Resources has available a
model they developed called SIMPTM.
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Establishing the Most Cost-Effective Operation
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SIMplified Particulate Transport Model(SIMPTM)

• Simulates accumulation of street dirt during dry
  weather
• Simulates wet weather washoff of pollutants on a
  storm-by-storm basis through an historic rainfall
  record of unlimited length
• Simulates the pollutant reduction benefits of
  specific cleaning operations described by cleaner
  type, pick-up performance by particle size (PS)
  and cleaning frequency, which are inputs

SIMPTM Description
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Most models simplistically simulate pollutant
loading by multiplying the estimate runoff of
each event times an assumed average pollutant
concentration, invariable from storm-to-storm.
This approach called the Simple Method

• Cannot estimate storm-by-storm concentrations
• Usually overestimates total annual pollutant
  washoff
• Cannot evaluate changes in street cleaning
  operations or other BMPs

SIMPTM Description
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In Contrast SIMPTM explicitly simulates
The physical processes of stormwater runoff to
transport accumulated pollutants for each storm
resulting in realistic and variable
concentrations from storm-to-storm The ability
of the street cleaning operation to periodically
remove variable sediment size fractions of
accumulated street dirt, which reduces the
pollutant accumulation and washoff
SIMPTM Description
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This results in accurate estimates of
Pollutant loadings and concentrations from
specific sites or land use categories over an
historic rainfall record of unlimited
length Accumulated street dirt and associated
pollutants Pollutant pick-ups from street
sweeping and catchbasin cleaning The most cost
effective or optimal street and/or catchbasin
cleaning frequency
SIMPTM Description
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SIMPTM Calibration of Street Dirt
AccumulationDurand Single-Family Residential
Site
SIMPTM Calibration
Jackson, MI Case Study
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Observed vs Simulated Catchbasin Accumulations
SIMPTM Calibration
Livonia, MI Case Study
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Observed versus SimulatedStreet Cleaner Pick-up
Tandem street sweeping data collected in
Portland, OR
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SIM Tandem
OBS Tandem
Size Group 1 lt63 microns SSeff 93 SSmin
2.0 Lbs/Paved acre
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Pick-up (lbs/paved acre)
20
10
0
0
30
40
20
10
Initial Street Dirt Accumulation (lbs/paved acre)
SIMPTM Calibration
1992 Portland Study
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Timing of Rainfall Events, Samplings and Cleanings
 
SIMPTM Calibration
CIH Case Study
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Dry Weather Road Dirt Accumulation
SIMPTM Calibration
CIH Case Study
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Simulated versus Observed Road Dirt
Accumulations on Porous Pavements
SIMPTM Calibration
CIH Case Study
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Simulated versus Observed TSS Concentrations
from Traditional CIH Pavements
SIMPTM Calibration
CIH Case Study
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Simulated versus Observed Paired TCU and TSS
Concentrations from Traditional CIH Pavements
SIMPTM Calibration
CIH Case Study
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Pacific Water Resources, Inc. has developed and
successfully implemented a study process that
provides accurate estimates of

• Urban pollutant loadings over specific time
  periods
• Reductions in these loadings associated with
  specific cleaning practices
• Optimum effort levels for the most cost-effective
  street and catchbasin cleaning practices

PWR Study Process
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Most stormwater studies can not afford the
considerable time or cost needed to continuously
monitor the quantity and quality of stormwater
events from small homogenous sitesInstead,
sites representative of watershed land uses
including highways can be monitored for the
accumulation of sediments and associated
pollutants at a fraction of both the time and
costThen, SIMPTM can be calibrated to the
accumulation data and simulate site specific
pollutant loadings and pollutant reduction
effectiveness of BMPs like street cleaning
PWR Study Process
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PWR Study Process

• Delineate watershed land use characteristics
• use best available mapping
• conduct windshield surveys
• Select land use or highway monitoring sites
• Periodically monitor sediment accumulations on
  street, parking lot or highway surfaces
• Periodically conduct physical and chemical
  analyses
• sieve into eight particle size fractions
• composite back to three fractions for chemical
  analysis of oxygen demand, nutrients, metals
  (particulate and dissolved) and other toxics

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Sediment sampling at accumulation monitoring
sites
Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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Representative Recreational Parking Site Livonia,
Michigan
Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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Representative Single-Family Residential Jackson,
Michigan
Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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Representative Downtown Commercial Jackson,
Michigan
Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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Representative Highway Jackson, Michigan
Street Dirt Accumulation Monitoring
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PWR Study Process

• Calibrate SIMPTM
• Match simulated versus observed sediment
  accumulations on paved surfaces
• Estimate unit costs of cleaning activities
• Conduct alternative BMP evaluation
• Use chemical results to simulate pollutant
  loadings
• Use cost data to help determine the optimum level
  of cleaning or the Maximum Extent Practicable
  (MEP)

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BMP Production Functions Single-Family Residential
Livonia, MI Case Study
SIMPTM Modeling Results
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BMP Total Cost Curves Single-Family Residential
Livonia, MI Case Study
SIMPTM Modeling Results
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PWR Study Process

• As related to
• and Maximum Extent Practicable

Marginal Cost /lb pollutant
lbs loading reduction/acre/year
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BMP Marginal Cost Curves Single-Family Residential
Livonia, MI Case Study
SIMPTM Modeling Results
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Simulated TSS and Chromium EMCs
Not Cleaned
Cleaned
SIMPTM Modeling Results
CIH Case Study
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Cleaning has greater effect on reducing higher
concentrations of pollutants(exactly what was
observed in the collected data)
SIMPTM Modeling Results
CIH Case Study
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Cross Israel Highway Stormwater Quality Study
Cleaning Improves Water Quality
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Stormwater Treatment Devices are best suited for
New developmentCertain retrofits where
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Street sweeping is not practical Toxic pollutant
loadings are elevated Higher level of pollutant
removal is needed
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w
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Conclusion
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No one has considered or evaluated the
integration of sweeping with structural
treatment, whether new or redevelopment. With
effective sweeping, it is possible to use much
smaller structural treatment systems or possibly
eliminate the use of structural controls in some
situations. The monies saved could be used
(fee-in-lieu) to support the sweeper program.
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Conclusion
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When dealing with the built highway environment
Sweep Before You Treat
Conclusion
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For More Information
For more information on PWR and the water quality
benefits of pavement cleaning practices follow
the link at www.pacificwr.com For more
information on SIMPTM and its previous use refer
to PWRs publications link at www.pacificwr.com/p
ublicationsframeset.html
Roger Sutherland, PE Pacific Water Resources,
Inc.Roger.Sutherland_at_PacificWR.com 503-671-9709 5
03-704-0522 (cell) 503-671-9711 (fax)
Contact Information