Morphology: It's Relation with Phonology, Syntax and Semantics.

1
Morphology It's Relation with Phonology, Syntax
and Semantics.

• Sobha L
• AU-KBC Research Centre
• MIT Campus of Anna University
• Chennai-44

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Word- Its Internal Structure

• What is a Word?
• All right and Alright
• The splody cat sat on a mat
• What is a Lexeme?
• An abstract vocabulary item is Lexeme
• He went to the pub for a pint and then pockled
  off
• Pockled, Pockling, Pockling and Pockle are
  different realisations of the lexeme POCKLE

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• Word Form
• Word is not just the abstract vocabulary item
  with a common core of meaning, the lexeme.
• It has a particular physical realisation of that
  lexeme in speech and writing and this is word-form

4

• Grammatical Word
• The word can also be seen as a representative of
  a lexeme that is associated with certain
  morpho-syntactic properties such as noun,
  adjective, verb , gender, number etc.
• Here we call a word as a grammatical word.

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• 3. a Usually I cut the bread on the table
• b. Yesterday I cut the bread in the sink
• In 3a. Cut is verb, present, non 3rd person
• Realises the present CUT
• In 3b. Cut is cut verb, past
• Realises the past CUT
• 3c.John has a cut in his finger
• Here Cut is Noun, singular

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• Hence here cut is a separate Lexeme
• CUT Noun from CUT Verb because they belong to
  different word-class
• The nature of grammatical word is important in
  identifying the relationship between words and
  sentences and the boundary between morphology and
  syntax

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Morphology

• Morphology is the study of morphemes and their
  arrangements in forming words.
• the, free, desk, eat--cannot be divided further
• Mosquito- cannot be divided into mos and quito
• Boys, girls can be divided into boy, girl and -s

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Morphemes, Allomorphs

• Morphemes are the smallest linguistic elements
  capable of having a meaning or grammatical
  function.
• They have no internal structure other than
  phonological structure. Naturally, the boundaries
  between words are also boundaries between
  morphemes.

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• Morphemes are minimal meaningful units which may
  constitute words or parts of words.
• e.g. re-, de-, un-, -ish, -ly, -ceive, -mand,
  tie, boy, and like
• in the combinations
• receive, demand, untie, boyish, likely.

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• Examples of the division of words into morphemes.
  
• His over-estim-at-ion of his friend-s'
  dis-pleas-ure at his effort-s led to a severe
  nerv-ous break-down which was only cure-d by an
  electr-ic shock therap-ist.
• It is difficult to determine the boundaries
  between morphemes.

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• The element cran-, which only occurs in
  cranberry.
• A second example is the element -sume in the
  words.
• consume, presume, subsume, resume, assume
• In response to certain other morphemes, sume
  systematically changes its form.
• consumption, presumption, subsumption,
  resumption, assumption consumptive, presumptuous
• Notice that the alternation between sume and sump
  is not predictable from the phonological laws of
  English

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• Thus, it is true that morphemes are the smallest
  elements capable of having a meaning or
  grammatical function
• Not all morphemes have a meaning or function.

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• MORPH AND ALLOMORPH

• e.g. in- and im- of intolerable and impossible
  are allomorphs of the negative morpheme im.
• /kam-, kan,kan-/ of comparable, context,
  congregate are allomorphs of a single morpheme.
• As their distribution can be stated by
  phonological condition, they are called
  phonologically conditioned allomorph.
• kam- kan- kan-

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• Principle 1
• If a form ( containing one phoneme or a number of
  phonemes ) conveys the same meaning in all its
  occurrences, then it is treated as a morpheme.
• e.g.
• -er of worker, dancer, and filler is a morpheme
• -er of wider, broader, smaller, deeper, cleaner
  is a different morpheme.

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• Problem 1
• nicoka I cry
• nicoka? I cried
• nimayana I am hungry
• nimayana? I was hungry
• nimayanaya I was hungry (and may still be)
• timayana you (sg.) are hungry
• nimayanas I will be hungry
• ticoka you (sg.) cry
• nicokaya I was crying (and may still be)
• nicokas I will cry

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• Problem 1 (cont.)
• 11. ankwake you (pl.) ate
• 12. nitehkawi I climb
• 13. titehkawi? you (sg.) climbed
• 14. nitehkawiya I was climbing (and may still
  be)
• 15. nitehkawis I will climb
• 16. nikwake we ate

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• Problem 1 (cont.)
• 17. nimayanati I go to be hungry
• 18. nimayanato I went to be hungry
• 19. nimayanaki I come to be hungry
• 20. nimayanako I came to be hungry
• 21. nikmayanati I cause him to be hungry
• 22. nikmayanati/ I caused him to be hungry
• 23. nimicmayanatis I shall cause you (sg.) to be
  hungry

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• ACBCADBD
• walk-edtalk-edwalk-ingtalk-ing
• nicoka ticcoka nimayana timayana
• A C B C A D B D
• coka? mayana? cokas mayanas
• The morphemes of the problem 1 can be listed as
  follows
• 1. ni- I 4. mayana to be hungry
• 2. ti- you (sg.) 5. ? - past
• 3. coka to cry 6. s - future
• 7. ya past incomplete

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• Problem 2
• paTittaan he read
• iTittan he pounded
• kaattaan he protected
• paTittaaL she read
• iTittaaL she pounded
• kaattaaL she protected
• paTikkiRaan he is reading
• iTikkiRaan he is pounding
• kaakkiRaan he is protecting
• paTikkiRaaL she is reading
• iTikkiRaaL she is pounding
• kaakkiRaaL she is protecting

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• Principle 2
• Forms which have a common semantic
  distinctiveness but which differ in phonemic form
  (i.e. the phonemes or order of the phonemes) may
  constitute a morpheme provided the distribution
  of formal differences is phonologically
  definable.
• e.g. in- and im- of intolerable, impossible,
  impracticable impersonal bear a partial
  phonetic-semantic resemblance and the position in
  which they occur are determined by the type of
  consonant following.

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• maram tree
• marattaTi wood of a tree
• marakkiLai branch of a tree
• mara?kaL trees
• maram / maram mara? mara/

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• Problem
• 1. hkab my hand 1a. kab hand
• 2. kakan my leg 2a. akan leg
• 3. alumal your land 3a. lumal land
• 4. awinam your wife 4a. inam wife
• 5. skop his language 5a. kop language
• 6. yatel his work 6a. atel work

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• problem 3
• h- k- my
• h occurs before constant-initial stem and k
  before a vowel-initial stem
• a- aw- your
• s- y- his

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• Principle 3
•   Forms which have a common semantic
  distinctiveness but which differ in phonemic form
  in such a way that their distribution cannot be
  phonologically defined, constitute a single
  morpheme if the forms are in complementary
  distribution in accordance with the following
  restrictions.
• common semantic distinctiveness (principle 1
  2)
• but which differ in phonemic form in such a way
  that their distribution cannot be phonologically
  definable (principle 2)
• complementary distribution
• restrictions

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• Occurrence in the same structural series has
  precedence over occurrence in different
  structural series in the determination of
  morphemic status.
• roses , boys, lips, oxen and sleep belong to the
  same structural series.
• The genitive morpheme /-?z -z -s/ is in a
  different structural series in that it occurs
  with both singular and plural nouns.
• mans, mens

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• 2. Complementary distribution in different
  structural series constitute a basis for
  combining possible allomorphs into one morpheme
  only if there also occurs in these different
  structural series a morpheme which belongs to the
  same distribution class as the allomorphemic
  series in question and which itself has only one
  allomorph or phonologically defined allomorphs.
• Hypothetical Example
• Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns
• 1st person -na fi-
• 2nd person -so ka-
• 3rd person -zo zo-

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• Problem
• Subject form Agreement marker after Verb stem
• naan I -een
• naam we -oom
• nii you -aay
• avan he -aan
• avaL she -aaL
• avar he (hon.) -aar
• atu it -atu

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• 3. Immediate tactical environment have precedence
  over nonimmediate tactical environments in
  determining morphemic status.
• in the boys died the immediate tactical
  environment of s is boy-. Any combination of
  boys such as the boys or the boys died is the
  nonimmediate tactical environment of s.

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• 4. Contrast in identical distributional
  environments may be treated as submorphemic if
  the difference in meaning of the allomorph
  reflect the distribution of these forms.
• Show occurs with two past participle
  formation, shown, showed. The distribution of n
  and ed are not complementary at this point, i.e
  they contrast. According to restriction 4 this
  contrast is not sufficient to force us to regard
  n and ed as separate morphemes, since whatever
  difference of distribution.

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• PRINCIPLE 4
• An overt formal difference in a structural
  series constitute a morpheme if in any member of
  such a series, the overt formal difference and a
  zero structural difference are the only
  significant features for distinguishing a minimal
  unit of phonetic-semantic distinctiveness.
• An overt formal difference means a contrast
  which is indicated by difference in phonemes or
  in the order of phonemes.
• e.g. The distinction between foot /fut/ and feet
  /fiyt/ is an overt difference.
• The contrast between the singular sheep /Siyp/
  and the plural sheep /Siyp/ consists of a zero
  and is covert.
• A member of a structural series may occur with a
  zero structural difference and an overt formal
  difference

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• Problem
• Walked 16. meant
• Played 17. rang
• Ran 18. swan
• Hit 19. rode
• Met 20. slept
• Worked 21. bought
• Fought
• Jumped
• Pounded
• Cut
• Split
• Spit
• Sang
• Bled
• Kept

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• Principle 5
• Homophonous forms are identifiable as the
  same or different morphemes on the basis of the
  following conditions.
• 1. Homophonous forms with distinctly different
  meanings constitute different morphemes.
• e.g. pair, pare and pear
• 2. Homophonous forms with related meanings
  constitute a single morpheme if the meaning
  classes are paralleled by distributional
  differences.
• e.g.
• run in the expressions they run and their run

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• PRINCIPLE 6
• A morpheme is isolable if it occurs under
  the following conditions
• In isolation
• In multiple combination in at least one of which
  the unit with which it is combined occurs in
  isolation or in other combinations.
• In a single combination provided the element with
  which it is combined occurs in isolation or in
  other combinations with nonunique constituents.

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• PRINCIPLE 6
• Condition 1
• On the basis of the first condition of
  isolatability we may identify as morphemes such
  forms as boy, cow, run, jump, up, he this, and
  touch, since it is possible to utter all these
  forms in isolation.
• Condition 2
• Certain morphemes never occur in isolation.
• e.g. the er in such words as dancer, worker,
  jumper, and provider.
• Nevertheless, we can identify er as a morpheme,
  since the elements with which it occurs may be
  found in isolation.
• e.g. dance, work, jump and provide

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• PRINCIPLE 6
• The second condition of isolatability does not
  require that all combining elements have an
  independent occurrence, but only that at least
  one form in any such structural series have the
  capacity of occurrence in isolation or in other
  combinations.
• The prefix con- occurs in combinations, e.g.
  conceive, consume, contain, condense, but the
  form dense occurs in isolation. This provides
  justification for considering con- a morpheme.
• Added evidence is available in the fact that the
  stem form occur in other combinations.
• e.g. perceive, resume, detain

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• PRINCIPLE 6
• Condition 3
• There are some morphemes which occur in only one
  combination.
• e.g. cran- in cranberry
• rasp- in raspberry
• cray- in crayfish

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Morphemes
Morphemes (Smallest meaningful unit)
Free Morphs Bound Morphs E.g. girl, time
E.g. -s, -ive
Morphs which have different forms are called
allomorphs.
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Phonologically Conditioned Plural forms in
English s hits iz sneezes z dogs
Lexically Conditioned Plurals sheep, oxen (each
one has a different form and cannot be predicted)
Morphologically Conditioned The choice of
allomorphs ceive, -cept is systematically
determined by the morpheme added to them)
Receiver, deceiver
Suppletion is an extreme form of allomorph in
which two completely different roots realize the
same morpheme. Examples are go went
Be is was were am Good better
best Bad worse worst One first
Two second
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• Suppletion is an extreme form of allomorph in
  which two completely different roots realize the
  same morpheme.
• Examples are
• go went
• Be is was were am
• Good better best
• Bad worse worst
• One first
• Two second

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Word Building Elements

• Roots
• Root is the irreducable core of a word-walk
• Function words
• Functional words signals the grammatical
  information or logical relation in a sentence
• Articles-a, the demonstratices this ,that etc
• Stems-Bases are called stem only in the context
  of inflectional morphology
• Bases- All roots are bases

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• Morphology
• Inflection Word-formation
• Derivation Compounding
• (affixation) (more than one root)
• Class-maintaining Class changing Compound
  Compound Compound
• Nouns Verbs Adjectives

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INFLECTION

• Inflection is the outer layer of the morphology
  and derivation is the inner layer.
• steward stewardesses stewards-esses
• motorbike motorbikes motorsbike
• painter painters paintser
• Root paint
• Affixes re-(paint)-ed
• Stem repaint(-ed)
• Morphemes AGAIN-PAINT-PAST

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• INFLECTION
• Inflectional categories such as tense, voice, and
  number play an important role in syntax and are
  called morphosyntactic categories.
• For example case inflections show the relation
  between nouns and verbs.
• ex.
• avan naay-aik kamp-aal aTi-tt-aan
• he dog_ACC stick_INS beat_PAST-3PS
•  

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• INFLECTION
• Inflectional morphemes are generally productive.
• Ex.
• The inflectional morphemes of PLURAL, PAST, etc.
  are productive.
• boy-s, toys, etc.
• walk-ed, talk-ed, cook-ed, etc.
• Where as derivative morphemes are not productive
  (selective, wantive construction, talkion)  

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• INFLECTION
• Inflectional morphemes are semantically more
  regular than derivational ones.
• Ex.
• Books, bags, girls The inflectional suffix -s
  denotes plurality regularly.
• Construction, destruction, instruction, etc.
• The meaning conveyed by the derivative suffix
  ion is not regular. The predictability of
  meaning is absent. 

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• INFLECTION
• Inflections create full conjugations and
  declensions for verbs and nouns. Derivation
  usually produce gaps.
• Inflection Derivation
• arrive arrived arrival
• Dispose disposed disposal
• Improve improved improval

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• TYPES OF INFLECTION
•  
• Suffixes
•   walk-ed walk-s walk-ing
• cook-ed cook-s cook-ing
• va-nt-aan COME-PAST-THIRD PERSON MASCULEINE
  SINGULAR
• Prefixes
• un-fortunate
• im-possible

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• Portmanteau
• Latin noun ANNUS year
• Singular Plural
• Nominative ann-us ann-i
• Vocative ann-e ann-i
• Accusative ann-um ann-os
• Genitive ann-i ann-orum
• Dati ann-o ann-is
• Ablative ann-o ann-is

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• Circumfixes
• A prefix and a suffix act together to surround a
  base
•  German
•  film-en to film ge-film-t filmed
• frag-en to ask ge-frag-t asked
• lob-en to praise ge-lob-t parised
• zeig-en to snow ge-zeig-t shown
• ge-film, etc. do not occur.

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• Infixes
•  Inflixes create discontinuous bases.
•   Charau, a language of Vietnam
• sulat write
• s-um--ulat wrote
• s-in-ulat was written

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• Interfixes
• Transfixes
• A special kind of infix involves not only
  discontinuous affixes but also discontinuous
  bases.
• Egyptian Arabic
• k-t-b write - base
• katab he wrote
• jiktib he will write
• maktuub written
• d-r-s study -base
• daras he studied
• jidris he will study madruus studied

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• Reduplication
• Using some part of the base (which may be the
  entire base) more than once in a word.
• If the entire base is reduplicated, reduplication
  resembles compounding.
• Indonasian Languages (complete reduplication)
• kursi chair - kursikursi chairs
• lalat house-fly - lalatlalat house-flies
• ibu mother - ibuibu mothers
• Tagalog language (partial reduplication)
• bill buy - bibill he will buy
• inom drink - ininom he will drink
• sulut write - susulat he will write

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• DERIVATION
• Derivation is the reverse of the coin of
  inflection.
• New Inflection occur only very slowly over time
• New derivational affixes seem to occur from time
  to time.
•   e.g.
• sputnik, beatnik, refusenik
• alcocholic, workacholic, radioholic

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• DERIVATION
• Derivational affixes produce new words
• There function is not to express morphosyntactic
  categories but to make new words.
• They are somewhat erratic in meaning and
  distribution.
•   arriveal gt arrival
• dispose al gt disposal
• bruteal gt brutal
• optional gt optional

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• Derivational affixes vary in their productivity.
•   hood boyhood, childhood
• ig- ignoble (ig- is not productive)
• -ose jocose (-ose is not productive)
• ist communist, Marxist, linguist, atheist,
  rationalist, etc. (-ist is productive)
• Derivational affixes are nearer to the root.

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• DERIVATION
• Class changing Vs Class Maintaining Process 
• computerNize gt computerize V
• childNhood gt childhoodN

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• Derivation
• Class-maintaining and Class changing derivation
• A class-maintaining process of derivation
  produces lexemes which belong to the same form
  class as the base.
• ex. kingdomgt kingdom
• unfriendlygt unfriendly
• lionnessgtlioness
• A class changing-process of derivation produces
  lexemes which belong to a form class other than
  the form class of the base.
• ex. kinglygtkingly,
• friendlygtfriendly

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• DERIVATION
• Word Building using affixes
• Suffixes
• Suffixes are used for all purposes in morphology.
  They are used derivationally as
• constitut-ion-al-ity
• When both inflectional and derivational suffixes
  co-occur in the same word-form, the general rule
  is that the derivational suffixes precede the
  inflectional ones.
• construct-ion-s
• paTu-kkai-il lie-NOM-LOC

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• DERIVATION
• Prefixes
• They are rarer than suffixes.
• They are used derivationally as
• dis-en-tangle
• un-thank-ful
• re-think-s
• Tamil
• a-naakariikam not pertaining to culture
• a-niiti not in accordance with justise

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• DERIVATION
• Infixes
• Infixes create discontinuous base.
• Relatively rare in use.
• Infixes can co-occur in the word-form with
  prefixes and suffixes.
• Charau a language of Vietnam
• voh know v-an-oh wise
• cah remember c-an-ah left over

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• DERIVATION
• Transfixes
• Another special kind of infix involves not only
  discontinuous affixes but also discontinuous
  bases.
• These are affixes which occur throughout the
  base, and they are thus termed transfixes.
• Egyptian Arabic Data
• k-t-b write d-r-s study
• maktaba book madrasa school
• kaatib clerk dars lesson
• mudaris teacher

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• DERIVATION
• Interfixes
• Another special kind of infix can be found, for
  example, in may of the Germanic languages, where
  there is a linking element which appears between
  the two elements of a compound
• Element1 Element2 Compound Gloss
• auge arzt auge-n-arzt eye
  doctor
• tag Reise tag-e-reise
  days journey
• uhr kasten uhr-en-hasten
  clock case
• The linking element in the compound is an affix
  which only comes between two other forms. It is
  therefore sometimes termed as interfix.

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• DERIVATION
• Reduplication
• Reduplication is using some part of the base more
  than once in the word.
• It is far more common across languages than the
  rarer type of affixation illustrated above.
• Reduplication can also form types of affix .
• The part of the word which is repeated may be
  added to the end or the beginning of the base

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• DERIVATION Reduplication
• Affikaans Data
• Motu, a language of Papua New Guinea
• mero boy mero.mero little boys
• memeromemero little boys
• Maori
• aahua appearance aahua.hua resemble
• hiikei step hiikei.kei step
• Tamil
• Type1 Type2
  Type3
• kaTakaTa (enRu) veekaveekamaaka pulikili
• very fast very fast tiger like
• paTapaTa (enRu) mellamella
  kaappikiippi
• fast very slowly
  coffee like

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• DERIVATION
• Cases involving shortening base
• Substractive morph?
• French
• Masculine Feminine Gloss
• movE movEz bad
• lõ lõg long
• p?ti p?tit little
• blã blãS white
• fo fos false

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• DERIVATION Cases involving shortening base
• BACK FORMATION
• The formation of new lexeme by the deletion of
  actual or
• supposed affixes in longer words.
• editor gt edit
• liaison gt liaise
• lecher gt lech
• CLIPPING
• The process by which a lexeme is shortened, while
  still
• retaining the same meaning and still being a
  member of
• the same classes.
• mimeograph gt mimeo
• aeroplane gt plane
• Laboratory gt lab

67

• DERIVATION
• By modification of the base
• Where affixes are not used for creating new
  words, the most common method is to make some
  kind of change to the base.
• The change may be segmental or suprasegmental .
• The terminology surrounding the various types of
  change is complex.
• A change from a voiceless fricative to a voiced
  fricative.
• Noun Verb
• Mouth mau? mouth mauð
• Thief ?if thieve ?iv

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• DERIVATION By modification of the base
• Change in superfixes
• Noun Verb
• discount discount
• import import
• insult insult
• With no change of form (COVERSION)
• Adjective Verb
• Better empty
• Round round

69

• DERIVATION
• Acronym formation
• The formation of words by making used of initial
  letters of words.
• radio, lazer, ram, aids
• Tamil
• timuka, pjeepi

70

• DERIVATION
• Blending
• When a new word is formed by the meaning and also
  the sounds of two words, the process is know as
  blending.
• First part blended with terminal part
• Oxford Cambridge gt oxbridge
• smoke fog gt smog
• motorists hotel gt motel
• 2. Overlapping
• slang language gt slanguage
• guess estimate gt guesstimate

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• DERIVATION
• Word manufacture
• kodak, quark, Finnegans Wake
• Multi formation
• New word by two process of word-formation
• (Clipping followed by derivation)
• Handkerchief gt hanky
• Comfortable gt comfy
• Pinafore gt pinny
• Nightgown gt nighty
• Tamil
• tanjaavuur gt tanjai, koyamputtuur gt koovai

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Derivation vs Inflection

• Derivation changes the meaning of the word.
  Inflections does not,
• if it, it changes its feature which is the
  grammar rather than the vocabulary.
• Inflection is added at the edge of the word.
• i.e., outside derivation
• Piglets
• Derivation changes the syntactic category of the
  word
• boyr ish
• N Adj
• While inflection preserves the category. They
  are always attached to the root
• boy s
• N pl

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• Inflection is nearly always semantically regular,
  while derivation is characterised by
  idiosyncrasies.
• Thus, -s nearly always indicates the plural of a
  noun, while the semantic effects of -ion on its
  base are unpredictable (profess/ profession).
• Inflection is much more productive within a
  syntactic category than derivation (i.e.
  inflection can apply to more members of the
  category, and does not show accidental gaps like
  doglet.

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• COMPOUNDING (COMPOSITION)
• Two or more words combine into a morphological
  unit.
• marshland, Blackbird,
• Combination of two free forms, or words, or words
  that have an otherwise independent existence.
• bed room, bath room, wind mill
• They function to all intents and purposes like
  single words.
•   old bathroom - bath old room

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• Compounding (Composition)
• Like single words they will be spoken with only
  one stress.
• Any inflectional suffixes will occur at the end
  of the whole unit.
• They occupy full, single grammatical slots in
  sentences, unlike idioms, which can be whole
  clause.
• Compounds may contain more than two free roots
•   wastepaper basket

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• Composition (Compounding)
• In some languages may contain in excess of half a
  dozen free roots.
•  
• student film society
• student film society committee
• student film society committee scandal
• student film society committee scandal inquiry

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• Compounding (Composition)
• Compounds can be studied at least from five
  points of view
• Based on the grammatical categoies of words which
  constitute compounds
• Based on the semantic classes
• Based on the possible linking elements
• Based on the deep structure
• Based on the morphophonology 

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• Compounding (Composition)
• Compounds are often divided into four semantic
  types
• 1. Endocentric
• 2. Exocentric
• 3. Appositonal
• 4. Dvandva

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• Endocentric compound
• Ex. Beehive, armchair, House boat, Boat house
• The compound is a hyponym of the grammatical head
• The second element is the grammatical head word
  and the first modifier.
• A beehive is a kind of hive, an arm chair is a
  kind of chair.
• House boat, a type of boat
• Boat house, a type of house

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Endocentric

• N NN coffee table, book self
• V NN cry baby, scrub woman
• A NN black bird, dry dock
• particle/preposition NN out house, out growth,
  off paint
• N AN pain free, blood thirsty

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Exocentric

• N NN pale face, red skin
• V NN pick pocket, spoil sport, kill joy
• N particleN hand out, put down

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• Composition (Compounding)
• Exocentric compound (Bahuvrihi compound)
• Ex. redskin, highbrow, Pale face
• The compound is is a hyponym of some other
  unexpressed semantic head.
• The compound is not a hyponymy of the grammatical
  head.
• Redskin is not a type of skin, nor a highbrow is
  not a type of brow.
• Person who has pale face

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• Compounding (Composition)
• Appositional Compound
• Ex. Maidservant
• The compound is a hyponym of both maid and
  servant .
• A maid servant is a type of maid and also a type
  of servant.

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• Composition (Compounding)
• Dvandva or copulative compound
• Ex.
• Alsace-Lorraine, Rank-Hovis
• ceeracoozhapaaNTiyar Cheras, Cholas and
  Pandiyas
• ceTikoTikaL plants and creepers
• Here it is not clear which element is the
  grammatical head and the compound is not a
  hyponymy of either element, but the elements name
  separate entities which combine to form the
  entity denoted by compound.

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• WORD FORMATION
• There are ten processes by which new words are
  formed in English
• 1. Compound formation
• 2. Duplication
• 3. Derivation
• 4. Back-formation
• 5. Conversion
• 6. Clipping
• 7. Acronymy
• 8. Blending
• 9.Word-manufacture
• 10. Multiple-function
• Most of these are applicable to Indian Languages.
  There a few new types of formations too.

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Productivity in word formation

• What is productivity
• Constrains in productivity

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Universal Grammar (UG)

• It is modular in structure
• Consists of various sub-systems of Principles
• Many principles consists of Parameters
• The modules of UG which are inter-related
• Lexicon and Morphology
• Syntax
• Phonetic Form
• Logical form

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Place of Morphology in generative grammar
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Morphology-Phonology
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Morphology Syntax
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