What is a Euphemism? (Kristin)

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What is a Euphemism? (Kristin)

• A neutral or positive expression instead of one
  that carries negative associations.
• A few examples
• Correctional Facility Prison
• Downsize/Laid Off Fired
• Pleasantly Plump Fat
• Passed Away Died
• Pre-Owned Used
• Euphemism's make something sound more appealing.

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Dysphemisms

• Dysphemisms are the opposite of Euphemisms.
• These are used to produce a negative effect on a
  listener's or reader's attitude toward something
  to tone down the positive associations it may
  have.
• Examples
• Cancer stick Cigarette
• Snail Mail Postal mail
• Pig Policeman
• Worm food Dead person

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http//www.youtube.com/watch?vWEJJUGJZxpU Ques
tion for the class Is this a good example of a
euphemism, or dysphemism, or something else?
What about this ? https//www.youtube.com/watc
h?vzoErxolaEQs
A Fun Video Example
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Red Herring Logical Fallacy

• Something that is brought up in conversation that
  distracts from the original point, especially if
  the new topic is introduced in order to distract
  the person.
• Fun Fact Why is this called Red Herring?
• Because dragging a Red Herring across a trail
  will cause a dog to leave the original trail and
  follow the path of the herring.
• Example You forgot to lock the front door
  again! Response You never listen to me.
• Example in Politics What is called the October
  Surprise is when something special happens or
  information is released just before the elections
  in November. The intent is to distract voters
  from more serious issues.

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Smoke Screen

• Definition An irrelevant topic or consideration
  introduced into a discussion to divert attention
  from the original issue.
• Topics introduced into the discussion are
  relevant to the topic but smoke screens tend to
  pile on issues or to make them extremely
  complicated until the original topic is lost in
  verbal smoke.
• A smoke screen is designed to obscure , confuse
  or mislead

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Innuendo (Steph)

• Innuendo
• Definition using words with neutral or positive
  associations to insinuate something derogatory.
• A hint or insinuation.
• Allows for a person to say something about a
  person without actually saying it.

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Examples of Innuendo

• Can the mayor be trusted? You be the judge."
•        This implies without stating that the
  mayor cannot be trusted.
• I heard they found him inside the bank at 2
  a.m."
•        This implies that he was robbing or
  burglarizing the bank. Maybe he was actually the
  janitor.

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A Video Example Groucho Marx
https//www.youtube.com/watch?vAJ9J4M5xN3k
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Logical Fallacies Argument from Popularity,
Tradition, and Common Practice

• Argument from popularity (or appeal to
  popularity)
•        Urging someone to accept a claim (or
  falling prey to someones doing it to us) simply
  on the grounds that all or most or some
  substantial number of people believe it.
•        Substantial number of people not being
  authorities or experts.
•        Two kinds of argument from popularity  
• 1. Tradition
• 2. Common practice

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• 1.   Argument from tradition (or appeal to
  tradition)
•        Attempting to convince someone that a
  claim is true or that a practice is legitimate of
  the basis of tradition.
•        Tradition being an inherited,
  established, or customary pattern of thought,
  action, or behavior.
• 2.   Argument from common practice (or appeal to
  common practice)
•        Justifying or defending an action or
  practice on the grounds that it is common.
•        Common being of or related to a community
  at large.

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Differences between the two arguments from
popularity

• Common practice Everyone else is doing it,
  Everyone speeds, so I shouldnt get a ticket.
• Tradition- Its always been done this way

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Slippery Slope A form of fallacious reasoning in
which I is assumed that some event must
inevitably follow from some other but in which no
argument is made for the inevitability. "We have
to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you
know, they'll be charging 40,000 a semester!"
You should never gamble. Once you start
gambling you find it hard to stop. Soon you are
spending all your money on gambling, and
eventually you will turn to crime to support your
earnings.
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• Misplacing the burden of proof
• This occurs when the burden of proof is placed on
  the wrong side of the issue.
• Person 1 states a claim. Person 2 asks person one
  about the claim. Instead of answering the
  question, person 1 directs a question back to
  person 2.

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• Misplacing the burden of proof
• General rules to find where the burden of proof
  should be placed
• Initial plausibility. The less initial
  plausibility a claim has, the greater burden of
  proof we place on someone who asserts that claim.
• Suppose one person claims that every even number
  is the sum of two prime numbers, while another
  person denies it. This claim will likely strike
  most people as implausible, so the first person
  faces the greater burden of proof.
• 2. Affirmative/negative. The burden of proof
  falls to the supporter of the affirmative side.
• A person that believes in ghosts has the
  responsibility of burden of proof. The
  non-believer doesnt.
• 3. Special circumstances.
• High stake investments.
• Court cases

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Wishful Thinking (Sara)

• Defined As Accepting a claim because the
  individual wants or wishes for it to be true or
  rejecting it because the individual wants or
  wishes that it werent true.
• Typically, Moral Subjective claims or beliefs,
  which is the idea that what is right or wrong is
  merely a matter of opinion, that thinking
  something is right or wrong makes it right or
  wrong for that individual.
• Often a belief by the individual, that if the
  individual will gain from their belief, then this
  gain is a sufficient reason to believe.

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Wishful Thinking

• Wishful Thinking begins with an individuals
  belief in P, their belief in P can often be
  overestimated by their desire for it to be true.
  Often overlooking evidence that may suggest its
  falsity. http//www.youtube.com/w
  atch?vaRE4fNlNH1E
• Ex I stand to gain natural healing power
  through crystals. Hence, I should believe in
  crystal healing.
• In all reality, the crystal is merely a pretty
  rock, whether or not it provides healing power is
  dependent on what the independent facts are, not
  what the individual believes or wishes to
  believe. Wishful thinking is never cogent in
  that it does not provide evidence for its
  conclusion.

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Stereotypes

• Defined As A generalization or assumption about
  all members of a group that is based on an image
  of those in the group. Such assumptions can/are
  developed by social norms that is often supported
  by a prejudice, which is an unfavorable opinion
  or feeling formed beforehand or without
  knowledge, thought or reason.
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vh68UJaHvG_c
• http//www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/04/bill-orei
  lly-hawaii-asians_n_2410563.html

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Stereotypes

• Stereotypes can also be categorized as Grouping
  Ambiguity's (Fallacy of Division or
  Composition)In such instances, stereotypes can be
  positive or negative. Ex All Asians are good
  at math.
• Does not assess the Asians individual
  mathematical competency.However, stereotyping is
  not always a conscious reaction. Humans are
  constantly judging situations and people that
  surround them to make a decision whether the
  individual that is near them is a potential
  threat.

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Rationalizing

• Defined As When individuals use false pretense
  to satisfy their own need. When we offer a
  better or more acceptable reason for our
  actions, instead of the actual reason. Is also
  described as creating excuses for why we
  participate in certain activities.
• http//www.youtube.com/user/GarageValvoline?vABrJ
  K8gNJ2U

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Rational vs. Rationalizing

• Rational is comprised of an individuals ability
  to make or conclude to a sensible judgment. Ex
  Its chilly outside, I should bring a jacket
  tonight.
• Rationalizing involves a confusion in thinking,
  allowing the individual to become subdued by the
  real intention of their action. Ex Im going to
  learn Spanish so I can impress this girl I met.
• -Eludes to the true motivation of why an
  individual does or says something.

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Loaded Questions (Keith)

• Definition A question that rests on one or more
  unwarranted or unjustified assumptions.
• Dont use because they tend to be negative and
  come across as entrapment.
• Example 1 Have you stopped beating your wife?
• Tend to have an emotive and unspoken assumption.

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Rhetorical Questions

• Definition Figures of speech in the form of
  questions that are asked in order to make a point
  and without the expectation of a reply.
• Shouldnt be used because they can simply
  persuade someone to believe in a position.
• Example 1 Cant you do anything right?
• Example 2 "And how many deaths will it take till
  we know, that too many people have died?" Bob
  Dylan.

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Two Wrongs Make a Right

• Definition A pattern of fallacious reasoning.
  Its acceptable for A to do X to B because B
  would do X to A, said where As doing X to B is
  not necessary to prevent Bs doing X to A.
• Not good to use because it attempts to change or
  distract from the issue.
• Example 1 Since my parents cheat on taxes, I can
  cheat on mine too.

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AD HOMINEMS(Kristin)

• Definition short for argumentum ad hominem, is
  an argument made personally against an opponent
  instead of against their argument. Ad hominem
  reasoning is normally described as an informal
  fallacy, more precisely an irrelevance.

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Personal Attack Ad Hominem

• Definition of a Personal Attack Hominem
• The illogical notion that a persons shortcomings
  refute his or her views.
• Examples
• "What makes you so smart and all-knowing that you
  can deny God's existence? You haven't even
  finished school."
• "If Dr. Smith is such a skilled hear surgeon,
  then why was he arrested for gambling?"

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Inconstancy Hominems

• Definition The illogical idea that you rebut an
  opponents position by showing that he or she
  didn't always subscribe to it.
• Examples We dont have to take Al Gores
  arguments that cars are wrecking the environment
  seriously because he drives a gas-guzzler.
• Peter "Based on the arguments I have presented,
  it is evident that it is morally wrong to use
  animals for food or clothing." Bill "But you
  are wearing a leather jacket and you have a roast
  beef sandwich in your hand! How can you say that
  using animals for food and clothing is wrong!"

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Circumstantial Ad Hominem

• Definition The illogical notion that an
  individual's personal circumstances somehow
  refute his or her views.
• Example Well you can forget what Father
  Hennesy says about the dangers of abortion,
  because he's a priest, and priests are required
  to hold such views.
• Because Father Hennesy is a priest and priests
  are required to preach against abortion, they
  have discounted what he has to say about the
  topic at all.